Semantics/Lexical Semantics
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Introduction
Semantics is the study of how language is used to represent meaning. The goal of semantic analysis for interpreting and translating the Bible is to understand the meaning of words and how they relate to each other in context. We want to understand what is implicit about word meaning – and thus assumed by the original audience – and make it explicit – and thus clear for us who are removed by time, language, and culture.
One major branch of semantic study is lexical semantics, which refers to the study of word meanings. It examines semantic range (=possible meanings of a word), the relationship between words (e.g. synonymy, hyponymy), as well as the relationship between words and larger concepts (conceptual domains). Our approach involves not only the study of Hebrew word meaning, but also of our own assumptions about word meaning in modern languages. Because the researcher necessarily starts with their own cultural assumptions (in our case, those of Western-trained scholars), this part of the analysis should be done afresh for every culture.
One of the characteristics of poetry, including its use of words, is its tendency to bend the normal "rules" of language. The Psalms, as biblical poetry, are no exception. They combine words creatively, including rare and archaic terms and those chosen for their phonetic qualities. Unlike most prose texts, the Psalms also exploit the polysemous potential in language rather than using words according to a single, narrow sense. [1]
Lexical semantics is one of four parts of semantic analysis (cf. verbal semantics, mid-level semantics, and unit-level semantics), which ultimately must be taken together as part of a full interpretation.
Semantic Domains
Semantic domains are split into lexical domains and contextual domains. A lexical domain represents a cognitive category (i.e. a basic category of thought). For example, the word rice is part of the lexical domain of “cereal/grain” (along with the words millet, barley, and wheat). The lexical domain to which a word belongs differs from culture to culture.
A contextual domain, on the other hand, represents a cognitive frame which includes words associated because they tend to occur together in thought. This is like a scene with multiple elements. For a farmer, the contextual domain of the word rice might be “cultivation.” Words within the contextual domain are not limited to a certain part of speech, but can include nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc. In this case, terms that make up the mental image associated with the contextual domain "cultivation" might include not only rice, but field, plowing, harvest).
A gloss is a word used to translate a term in a given context. However, it will usually only be appropriate in some contexts and can be misleading if confused with a fuller definition. Glosses can be helpful tools, but should be used with care.
Semantic Dictionary of Biblical Hebrew
The Semantic Dictionary of Biblical Hebrew (SDBH) approaches word meaning from the perspective of cognitive linguistics and, in particular, semantic domain theory. You can watch an introduction to SDBH here (video)
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SDBH provides a table which shows the semantic domains of each word of a given psalm. In addition to the verse number, lemma, and part of speech, each entry includes the following:
-lexical domains in bright green (Praise) -contextual domains in purple (Joy and Grief) -definitions in black (state of being considered fortunate and blessed by God) -glosses in teal (happiness; blessedness)
You can access the SDBH page for a given psalm here (substituting the relevant chapter for the final “1”): https://semanticdictionary.org/overview.php?book=19&chapter=1.
Required Tools
- Open-source Hebrew text: OSHB Read
- Grammatical diagram
- Lexicons
- SDBH
- Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (HALOT) (available on "Translator's Workplace")
- Brown–Driver–Briggs (BDB)
- Dictionary of Classical Hebrew (available on "Translator's Workplace")
- Ancient Versions
- Modern Versions
Versions with asterisks are required. Versions without asterisks are recommended but not required.
To see all of these translations linked to a specific psalm, visit the wiki page "Psalm # Translations" (e.g., Psalm 8 Translations).
Steps
Preparatory Work
1. Provide English glosses.
Using the grammatical diagram, provide English glosses for each Hebrew word or phrase. Make sure to consult the lexicons listed above, and others if needed. You may also find it helpful to do your own concordance work at this stage. Commentaries will also be useful in some cases. This is an important step in laying out the lexical semantic possibilities.
2. Write up observations and findings.
For difficult or disputed words or phrases, write a sentence or brief paragraph that explains the difficulty and the options. You don't need to argue for a definitive preference at this point.
Semantic Domains
1. Identify repeated and/or key lexical and contextual domains.
Using the SDBH page for your psalm, take note of which lexical and contextual domains recur most often or are located in critical places.
2. Record your observations.
Write a brief paragraph that summaries the significance of the key semantic domain for interpreting the psalm. If semantic domain research sheds light on a particular word, then write down your findings or ideas here too, using a text box in Miro.
Venn diagrams
1. Select terms for closer study.
Choose 3–5 words from your psalm that require particular attention. These may be difficult terms, key terms, or simply words that recur several times in the psalm. Before proceeding, ensure that a Venn diagram isn't already available for any of your terms. Check the word bank here.
2. Prepare Venn diagram.
Using the Venn diagram template (available on the Miro "templates" board), place the chosen Hebrew word above the right oval and one English gloss above the left oval.
3. Complete Hebrew side.
Using the lexicons listed in "required tools" (including both definitions and semantic domains) provide several Hebrew associations in the right oval. The goal is not to be exhaustive, but to provide several items that help fill out the semantic range of the term in question.
4. Complete English (or other modern language) side.
Fill in the English gloss oval, using your own cultural associations. In addition to your own knowledge of the language, consult at least one English dictionary (e.g. Concise Oxford Dictionary). Where these associations are similar to Hebrew associations, indicate this by putting them in the overlapping area of the diagram.
Note: You may choose to do a second Venn diagram for a given Hebrew word, using a different English gloss.
Repeated Roots
1. Identify.
Using the template table (available on the Miro "templates" board), identify the roots which are repeated in the psalm and list in order of occurrence. The table should include verse numbers on the left and the lexical form of each word at the top.
2. Find patterns.
Create a duplicate of the repeated roots table, and look for groupings or breaks. Notice especially if there is a “mid-line” that splits groups of repeated roots. Use this colour scheme: roots occurring only in first half: green circle roots occurring only in second half: blue circle roots occurring in both half: black circle
3. Write a repeated roots "mini-story."
Summarise the message of the psalm, through the lens of the repeated roots. You want to capture the effect of the repeated roots. This mini-story is not intended to include everything. Its purpose is simply to illuminate the repeated roots.
Additional Resources
Archer, Gleason L. Jr., Robert Harris, and Bruce K. Waltke, eds. Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. Moody Press, 1980 (Logos version, 2002).
The Semantics of Ancient Hebrew Database project
Semantic Dictionary of Biblical Hebrew, edited by Reinier de Blois, with the assistance of Enio R. Mueller, ©2000-2021 United Bible Societies.
List of semantic domains, developed by Ron Moe (SIL).
Zotero: Lexical Semantics
- ↑ There is an important distinction between polysemy, homophony, and vagueness. Polysemy refers to multiple meanings of a single word (one entry in the dictionary), whereas homophony (sometimes called lexical ambiguity) refers to different words that are spelled the same way (more than one entry in the dictionary). Vagueness refers to a single word with a nonspecific meaning. For tests to distinguish between polysemy and vagueness, see Geeraerts, Dirk. "Lexical Semantics." In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Oxford: OUP, 2017.