Grammar

• Grammar
• Semantics
  • Semantics/Lexical Semantics
  • Phrase-Level Semantics
  • Verbal Semantics
  • Semantics/Story behind the Psalm
• Exegetical Issues
• Discourse
  • Participant Analysis
  • Macrosyntax
  • Speech Act Analysis
  • Emotional Analysis
• Poetics
  • Poetic Structure
  • Poetic Features
• Synthesis
  • Verse-by-Verse Notes
  • Translation Challenges
• Close-but-Clear
• Videos
  • Overview
  • Top 3 Exegetical Issues
  • Top 3 Poetic Features
• Post to wiki

Overseer: Ian Atkinson

Introduction

What

The grammar layer visually represents the grammar and syntax of each clause. It also displays alternative interpretations of the grammar, major textual variants, and emendations that are reflected in modern translations or otherwise considered significant enough for inclusion.

The grammatical diagram provides a way to visualise how different parts of a sentence work together. It represents the “surface-level” grammar, or morphosyntax, of a sentence. Morphosyntax includes both the form of words (morphology) and their placement in the sentence (syntax). This approach to visualising the text, based on the Reed-Kellogg diagramming method, places the grammatical subject in one slot, the verb in another slot, and modifiers and connectives in other slots.

Why

A solid understanding of sentence grammar is foundational for understanding the meaning of a text. There are several exegetical "payoffs" for analysing a text in this way. Grammatical diagramming:

• encourages you to slow down and consider how each word relates to the words around it;
• helps reveal grammatical and syntactical ambiguities;
• reveals interpretive possibilities useful for evaluating existing versions and interpretations; and
• aids in discovering grammatical and syntactical parallels and other formal features, especially for poetic texts.

The grammatical diagram is limited to the sentence-level, so in most cases it will not visually represent relationships that obtain across larger sections of text (cf. the “discourse” layers). The method proposed here requires knowledge of basic linguistic terminology and of Hebrew morphology and syntax. For more on grammar basics, see Additional Resources below.

Tools

Hebrew Text: all Layer by Layer materials use the OSHB as the base text, which may be modified as needed to reflect preferred readings.

Diagramming Software: All of our grammatical diagrams are currently being generated in our online simple format old diagrammer, with instruction page here. From October 2024 onwards, we will switch over to a new diagrammer, but the simple format coding will remain the same.

Diagramming examples:

• Grammatical diagram method overview video
• Ps 1 grammatical diagram and video explanation

Legend

For Legend, click "Expand" to the right

Formatting Conventions

The use of color and parentheses is meaningful and is generated by the online diagrammer according to these established conventions.

–Black font and line colour = default/preferred.

– Pink font and line colour (where necessary) = dispreferred alternative reading.

- Purple font = revocalized text (whether preferred or dispreferred).

– Blue font = non-MT textual variant or emended consonantal text (whether preferred or dispreferred).

– Gray font without parentheses = part of the text that is represented in black elsewhere (e.g. pronominal suffixes, vocatives that are also appositional to a non-subject constituent).

– (Gray font with parentheses) = supplied elided element.

– ( ) Empty gray parentheses = non-supplied elided element. E.g. substantival adjectives and relative clauses [implied head/antecedent].

– Never use black parentheses.

Steps

1. Prepare your workspace.

Within the folder for saving simple format code, create a Google Doc and save it in the format Psalm ### (e.g., Psalm 051). NB This will be the master file for saving your simple format code. It should be kept up to date at all times. Please do not create parallel documents or parallel versions of codes within this master document. Google Docs automatically keeps track of past versions, so previous versions can easily be restored if needed.

Set your Google Doc preferences so that it will not automatically change your code. Go to Tools > Preferences and deselect "Automatically capitalize words" and "Use smart quotes," since these auto-corrections can make the code not work and slow down the writing process. You can also disable automatic spelling corrections if desired.

Copy the Hebrew text of the Psalm from OSHB and paste it into the document. Remove all diacritics such as accents and maqqefs, but do not remove vowel points.

Set the font for the code document (including Hebrew) to Courier New (11 pt).

To get started, begin the code at the top of the page with the following lines and change the "#" to your Psalm number:

DiscourseUnit [Psalms version @version] <showGlosses="1">
  DiscourseUnit [ch. # ] 
    DiscourseUnit [v. 1]
      Fragment

Each subsequent verse (or verse range) should be encoded with its own DiscourseUnit and a note identifying the verse as above. A verse may have multiple fragments. When two or more verses are syntactically joined into a single diagram, then indicate this combination in the note on the single DiscourseUnit (e.g., [vv. 3-4]), rather than having separate DiscourseUnits for each separate verse. Do not separate partial verses into different DiscourseUnits, but use whole numbers (e.g., [vv. 7-8], not [vv. 7b-8a]).

It is also helpful to attribute the "Heading 1" style to the beginning of each new verse, so you can easily navigate your document from the outline panel, especially if it is a long psalm. The first time you do this, select your formatted text line and click the list down arrow next to the style box (that usually says "Normal text"), go down to the Heading 1 list arrow, and select "Update 'Heading 1' to match." This will apply your preferred script style to the Heading 1 style, which can then be applied to all of your other verses without changing the formatting.

2. Create simple format code.

Basic code

Exegetes are encouraged to draft their simple format code in the new diagrammer, because it has many helpful drafting aids, such as word completion, alignment aids, and localized error detection (e.g., typos, invalid children, misalignment, and blank lines). Drafted simple format code should be copy-pasted into the Google Doc to be saved.

Create the basic code for each sentence using the detailed instructions document. This document explains the syntactic hierarchy for encoding the text with many categorized examples based on commonly-encountered syntactical relationships.

NB If you encounter a situation not covered in the instructions, you may 1) check (and re-use) the code of other Psalms with similar constructions to ensure consistency of treatment and/or 2) message the overseer of the grammar layer (Drew Longacre) for help in resolving the problem.

In order to avoid transcription errors, use the Hebrew text pasted from the OSHB for the Hebrew words. Only type the Hebrew directly in cases where the Hebrew differs (e.g., revocalizations, emendations, some ellipses).

In general, each main clause should be diagrammed separately along with any modifying clauses (e.g., subordinate, relative, embedded, temporal). Only join separate main clauses into clause clusters when they are conjoined by a conjunction or when they together govern a subordinate clause.

If you run into problems where the diagrammer is crashing or otherwise displaying incorrectly, you will need to troubleshoot using the following steps:

1. If using the new diagrammer, resolve any localized errors detected by the diagrammer.
2. Proofread the code carefully to ensure there are no further typos or formatting errors.
3. Use a process of elimination (by removing functioning sections of the code from the online diagrammer) to identify the precise part of the code that is causing the diagrammer to crash.
4. If you still cannot identify and fix the problem, then you can report this as a problem text in the "Problem Texts" section of the instructions document. This report should include a title indicating the nature of the problem and your name, a brief description of the problem (including relevant verse numbers) and any troubleshooting you have attempted, and a copy of your problematic code. The grammar layer overseer or others will attempt to answer your query as soon as possible. If the query is urgent, then message the grammar overseer (Drew Longacre) to alert him.
5. If you are confident that the code is correct, you can report bugs directly on the new diagrammer by clicking the bug icon at the top right of the screen and selecting "+ Add New Issue". When reporting bugs, please include a title, description, passage reference, copy of the relevant code, and appropriate label ("bug" = malfunction in the diagrammer; "enhancement" = request for new functionality; "editor" = report related to text editor; "diagram" = report related to diagram display).
6. It is possible that you will encounter some situations that the diagrammer does not currently support, in which case the overseer will direct you to report this to the software development team for further development. For the new diagrammer, report such "enhancements" as you would "bugs" from the previous step. For the old diagrammer, please add a thread to the forum following the report template. If the request is urgent, please notify Elizabeth (old diagrammer) or Ben (new diagrammer) directly.

Compound clauses

Treat clauses as compound clauses (ClauseCluster in code) when they:

• are conjoined by a conjunction within a well-defined discourse unit (e.g., verse or poetic couplet)
• share a constituent (e.g. subject, object, prepositional phrase) or subordinate clause

Otherwise, treat clauses as separate clauses (encoded within separate Fragment tags).

This indicates the formal relationship between the clauses. At Macrosyntax we will address the implied semantic relationships.

Ellipsis

In cases where an elided word or phrase seems necessary to explain the grammar of a clause, include the Hebrew (with contextual adjustments as necessary) and label it with <status="elided">. Null copulas are not encoded as elision (unless a form of היה is to be understood).

Alternatives

The grammatical diagram should include all alternative (i.e., dispreferred) readings that reflect different interpretations of the syntax and meet the relevant criteria:

1. The alternative is grammatically viable.
2. The alternative has sufficient support from ancient and/or modern versions.

When multiple readings are possible, any dispreferred readings should be marked as <status="alternative"> at the lowest level that encompasses the entirety of the alternative diagram. The preferred reading will then be in black, and the alternative (dispreferred) readings in pink.

If possible, alternatives should be diagrammed connected to the main (preferred) diagram at their appropriate locations, rather than isolated fragments. If, however, the alternatives require complete restructuring of the clause (or phrase), then they should be diagrammed separately. At the phrase-level semantics layer, all alternatives will be stripped away from the diagram, so alternatives that are improperly combined with preferred readings will crash the diagrammer.

For each alternative, the exegete should write a note on the Miro board explaining the options and arguments.

Revocalization and Emendations

In lieu of a full text-critical layer, the grammar layer also serves as the primary point of reference for textual variants and proposed emendations to the Hebrew text. The exegete should, therefore, include all variants/emendations/revocalizations which are preferred, significant, or reflected in modern translations. Items of interest which are not preferred, significant, or reflected in modern translations may be noted, but should not be included in the diagram.

See the following sources for textual variants:

1. Ketiv/Qere differences. In these cases, treat the vocalized Ketiv as the primary MT reading and the Qere as an emendation. Do not include continual Qere readings that are consistently read against the Ketiv.
2. The Dead Sea Scrolls. To see whether any fragments of a Psalm have survived in any Dead Sea Scrolls, see this DSS contents spreadsheet. Editions of the Dead Sea Scroll Psalm scrolls are available on the group Zotero library. Also, Qumran Digital-Text und Lexikon has transcriptions of the DSS (biblical at the bottom of the list).
3. The Septuagint according to Rahlfs 1931. In cases where it is unclear whether a difference is due to a different Hebrew base text or the translation technique of the translator, exegetes may use their discretion to decide what is necessary to include.
4. Modern translations, Hebrew text editions (esp. BHS), secondary literature (including HOTTP and CTAT).

When a reading shares the consonantal text of the Leningrad Codex (the base text of the OSHB) but reads the vowels differently, this should be encoded as <status="revocalization">. NB In previous versions of the code we used the anglicized spelling "revocalisation," which is still supported. But please now use the American spelling with "z" for consistency.

When a reading differs from the consonantal text of the Leningrad Codex, then it should be encoded as <status="emendation">. NB This is labelled as an emendation in the code, even if it has Hebrew manuscript support.

When revocalizations and emendations are the preferred readings in the diagrams, they will replace the black text in the main diagram. The dispreferred OSHB text will then be marked as an alternative. When they are dispreferred, they should be marked as alternatives; they will either follow the preferred text directly or else be positioned within an alternative (dispreferred) part of the diagram. When a dispreferred emendation does not have a parent that can be labelled "alternative," then the word itself can be marked as <status="alternative emendation">.

Every revocalization and emendation that is included in the diagram should also be discussed briefly in a note on the Miro page explaining the options and arguments. In the case of text-critical decisions, it is important to explain what possible processes could explain the origins of all dispreferred readings.

3. Generate diagram.

Throughout the drafting process, you can copy-paste your code from the Google Doc into the text box on the old diagrammer and click "Draw Diagram" to view the generated diagram. You can also edit directly in the diagrammer, but make sure to keep your Google Doc updated with the current code. If the diagrammer crashes, follow the troubleshooting steps mentioned above.

Once the full code has been correctly drafted and is working properly, copy-paste the code into the diagrammer text box and click "Draw Diagram." You will then need to export the diagram and post it on the Miro board using the following steps:

1. Under "New Diagram Name goes here:" type the name of your diagram (e.g., "Psalm 98 draft 1") and click "Add Diagram."
2. Make sure that diagram name is selected in the drop down list to the right of the "Add Diagram" button.
3. Click "Export SVG." Your computer will then save the .svg file to your downloads.
4. Locate this file in your downloads and drag and drop it onto your Miro board.
5. Create a white background for the diagram using the "Frame" feature on Miro. This frame should be appropriately titled to indicate the Psalm number and also the draft number or review stage, e.g., "Psalm 98 draft 1" or "Psalm 98 for overseer review."

If the code is correct, but there are problems remaining with the appearance (e.g., awkward positions, overlapping lines, features that are not yet supported on the diagrammer) related to the old diagrammer, then flag these on the Miro board with sticky notes as display problems. These will be resolved during final checks.

When using the new diagrammer, it is recommended to draft directly in the diagrammer and copy-paste the final text into the Google Doc to be saved. Once your code is ready in the text diagrammer's text editor, you can click "Draw" to generate the diagram. If the diagram is correct, you can click "Export" to download an SVG image through your browser. This can be added to the Miro board as in the instructions above.

4. Draft notes.

Alongside the diagram, you should include notes in text boxes on the Miro board that identify the verse and relevant text, list and explain viable options, and argue for your preferred reading. These notes should include relevant secondary literature as appropriate and follow the Style Guide.

Include notes for:

1. alternatives
2. revocalizations
3. emendations
4. and any difficult, rare, or atypical forms or constructions that are likely to be a challenge for translators.

Help

Good Examples

The following may be compared as good examples of grammatical diagrams:

• Psalm 51 (diagram and code)
• Psalm 112 (diagram and code)

Common Mistakes

The following are a list of common mistakes to be aware of. For further details, see the instruction document.

• Suffix-pronouns misplaced - The suffix-pronoun part of speech requires precise placement, and when misplaced it will often supply grayed-out suffixes on the wrong words.
• Empty parts of speech - Often exegetes will create unnecessary parts of speech in the code that do not have any corresponding Hebrew. The only time this should occur is for null-copula verbless clauses, where a gloss is provided on the verb part of speech, but no Hebrew. Otherwise, there should be no empty parts of speech. E.g., if a subject is not stated, you do not need to write Subject followed by an empty noun. Both will be understood and supplied by the diagrammer.
• Confusion of revocalization, emendation, and alternative - Revocalization refers to alternative vocalizations that differ from the Leningrad Codex when there is no change in the consonantal text. Emendations refer to textual variants or conjectural emendations that differ from the consonantal text of the Leningrad Codex. Alternatives refer to all dispreferred texts, which can include revocalizations, emendations, and also rejected readings of the Leningrad Codex. There can only be one preferred (i.e., non-"alternative") text for each word.
• Alternatives not encoded or positioned properly - Often, alternative status is not marked in the right place, leading to problems when stripping alternatives for phrase-level highlighting. Also, alternatives that should be merged with the preferred diagram are often written unnecessarily as separate fragments.
• Misalignment of elements - The diagrammer is dependent upon correct hierarchical alignments, and even small errors in spacing can disrupt the diagrammer.
• Smart quotes - The diagrammer is designed to accept regular quotation marks. If a text processor automatically changes these to smart quotes, it will create an error.
• Notes do not explain origins of variants - Often exegetes fail to explain how attested variants could have arisen, but having a viable hypothesis is essential for explaining which variant is earlier.

Additional Resources

Hebrew Grammar (Learning)

AnimatedHebrew: beginning Hebrew video lectures.

Aleph with Beth: biblical Hebrew video course in an immersive style.

“Biblical Hebrew: A Student Grammar”: draft copy by John A. Cook and Robert D. Holmstedt, 2009.

Pronominal Suffixes." Chapter notes from Basics of Biblical Hebrew. Gary D. Pratico and Miles V. Van Pelt.

Van Pelt, Miles V. Basics of Biblical Hebrew Video Lectures. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2012. Available on Logos's "Translator's Workplace."

H. H. Hardy II and Matthew McAffee, Going Deeper with Biblical Hebrew: An Intermediate Study of the Grammar and Syntax of the Old Testament. Brentwood, TN: B&H Academic, 2024.

Hebrew Grammar (Reference)

Gesenius, Wilhelm. Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar. Edited and revised by E. Kautzsch and A. E. Cowley. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910. Available on archive.org or Wikisource.

Joüon, Paul, and T. Muraoka. A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew, 2d ed. Subsidia Biblica, 27. Rome: Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico, 2006.

Van der Merwe, Christo, et al. A Biblical Hebrew Reference Grammar. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1990. Available on archive.org.

Waltke, Bruce and Michael Patrick O'Conner. An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990. Available on archive.org.

Other

GrammarBook.com: “Finding Nouns, Verbs, and Subjects.”

SIL "Glossary of Linguistic Terms."

SIL "French/English Glossary of Linguistic Terms."

Van Pelt, Miles V. English Grammar to Ace Biblical Hebrew. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2010. Available on Logos's "Translator's Workplace."

Rubric

Dimension	Description
Completeness	Every word in the psalm is represented in the diagram. Viable and attested grammatical alternatives are represented in the diagram. Textual variants, revocalizations, and emendations are represented in the diagram if they are preferred, significant, or attested in modern translations. Difficulties, alternatives, revocalizations, and emendations are explained with prose notes.
Quality of analysis	Every word in the psalm is accurately encoded and diagrammed according to project standards. In the case of difficulties, alternatives, revocalizations, and emendations, each view is thoroughly explained and defended with a note. The preferred view is viable and well grounded in evidence.
Engagement with secondary literature	Standard reference grammars (e.g., GKC, JM, IBHS, BHRG) are cited where relevant. Bible translations (ancient and modern) are cited where relevant. When two or more translations reflect a certain interpretation of the grammar, that interpretation is represented on the diagram.
Clarity of language	Prose notes are clear and concise. Language is not too technical so as to be inaccessible to Sarah.
Formatting/Style	Diagram is properly titled. Each verse in the diagram is properly labeled. The diagrammed text has vowels but no accents or maqqephs. Proposed changes to the text are properly represented. Alternatives are properly represented. Any remaining display problems relating to the diagrammer are flagged for further development. Correct spelling and punctuation are used throughout the prose notes. Notes adhere to the Style Guide.

Submitting your draft

Copy the text below into your forum submission post, entitled Grammar - Psalm ###. After posting, change your post into a wiki post so the reviewers can check the boxes. To change your forum post into a wiki post, click on the three dot menu at the end of the text.

Click on the wrench.

Select "make wiki."

[Grammar Layer Rubric](https://psalms.scriptura.org/w/Grammar#Rubric)

|Guardian Review|Overseer Review|Final Checks|Description|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
||||**Completeness**
|[ ]||| Every word in the psalm is represented in the diagram.
|[ ]|[ ]|| Viable and attested grammatical alternatives are represented in the diagram.
|[ ]|[ ]|| Textual variants, revocalizations, and emendations are represented in the diagram if they are preferred, significant, or attested in modern translations.
|[ ]|[ ]|| Difficulties, alternatives, revocalizations, and emendations are explained with prose notes.|
||||**Quality of analysis**
|[ ]|[ ]||  Every word in the psalm is accurately encoded and diagrammed according to project standards.
|[ ]|[ ]|[ ]|  In the case of difficulties, alternatives, revocalizations, and emendations, each view is thoroughly explained and defended with a note.
|[ ]|[ ]|[ ]|  The preferred view is viable and well grounded in evidence.|
||||**Engagement with secondary literature**
|[ ]|[ ]||  Standard reference grammars (e.g., GKC, JM, IBHS, BHRG) are cited where relevant.
|[ ]|[ ]|[ ]|  Bible translations (ancient and modern) are cited where relevant. When two or more translations reflect a certain interpretation of the grammar, that interpretation is represented on the diagram.|
||||**Clarity of language**
|[ ]|[ ]|[ ]|   Prose notes are clear and concise.
|[ ]|[ ]|[ ]|   Language is not too technical so as to be inaccessible to [Sarah](https://psalms.scriptura.org/w/Personas).|
||||**Formatting/Style**
|[ ]|||   Diagram is properly titled.
|[ ]|||   Each verse in the diagram is properly labeled.
|[ ]|||   The diagrammed text has vowels but no accents or maqqephs.
|[ ]|[ ]||   Proposed changes to the text are properly represented.
|[ ]|[ ]||   Alternatives are properly represented.
|[ ]|[ ]||   Any remaining display problems relating to the diagrammer are flagged for further development.
|[ ]|||   Correct spelling and punctuation are used throughout the prose notes.
|[ ]|||   Notes adhere to the [Style Guide](https://psalms.scriptura.org/w/Style_Guide).|