Psalm 36 Discourse

Psalm Overview

• Grammar
• Semantics
• Story behind the Psalm
• Discourse
• Poetics

About the Discourse Layer

Our Discourse layer includes four analyses: macrosyntax, speech act analysis, emotional analysis, and participant analysis. (For more information, click 'Expand' to the right.)

Macrosyntax

The macrosyntax layer rests on the belief that human communicators desire their addressees to receive a coherent picture of their message and will cooperatively provide clues to lead the addressee into a correct understanding. So, in the case of macrosyntax of the Psalms, the psalmist has explicitly left syntactic clues for the reader regarding the discourse structure of the entire psalm. Here we aim to account for the function of these elements, including the identification of conjunctions which either coordinate or subordinate entire clauses (as the analysis of coordinated individual phrases is carried out at the phrase-level semantics layer), vocatives, other discourse markers, direct speech, and clausal word order.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Macrosyntax Creator Guidelines.

Speech Act Analysis

The Speech Act layer presents the text in terms of what it does, following the findings of Speech Act Theory. It builds on the recognition that there is more to communication than the exchange of propositions. Speech act analysis is particularly important when communicating cross-culturally, and lack of understanding can lead to serious misunderstandings, since the ways languages and cultures perform speech acts varies widely.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Speech Act Analysis Creator Guidelines.

Emotional Analysis

This layer explores the emotional dimension of the biblical text and seeks to uncover the clues within the text itself that are part of the communicative intent of its author. The goal of this analysis is to chart the basic emotional tone and/or progression of the psalm.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Emotional Analysis Creator Guidelines.

Participant Analysis

Participant Analysis focuses on the characters in the psalm and asks, “Who are the main participants (or characters) in this psalm, and what are they saying or doing? It is often helpful for understanding literary structure, speaker identification, etc.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Participant Analysis Creator Guidelines.

Discourse Visuals for Psalm 36

Macrosyntax

Notes

Paragraph Divisions

• The first section (vv. 2-5) is delimited based on its thematic unity as a description of the wicked person.
• The end of the first section and beginning of the second (vv. 6-7) is signaled by the vocative, יְהוָה. The second section extends until the occurrence of another vocative, יְהוָה, which signals the end of that section.
• The division between the second and third section (vv. 8-13) is strengthened, not only by the section-ending vocative in v. 7c, but by the exclamative statement in v. 8a. The discourse function of the exclamative statement, מַה־יָּקָר חַסְדְּךָ "How precious is your devotion!", may be similar to that of a rhetorical question in that it has the potential to "open or close a section and thus play a part in the (poetic) structuring of the text" (de Regt 1996, 75). Exclamative are similar to thetics in that both "convey[s] surprise," yet different in that exclamative presuppose a proposition whereas thetics do not (García Macías 2016, 79). In other words, "How precious is your devotion!" presupposes the proposition, "YHWH's devotion is precious," which is the very point the psalmist is at pains to demonstrate in the previous section (vv. 6-7). Based on macrosyntactic considerations, the psalm divides into three parts: vv. 2-5, 6-7, and 8-13.

Word Order

• v. 5a - In the previous verse, the psalmist describes the wicked person's words as אָוֶן וּמִרְמָה "evil and deceit." As a result, these two characteristics are activated in the discourse and, hence, made available for selection in the following text. Of these two characteristics, the psalmist selects אָוֶן as the topic of the sentence, that is, what remainder of the sentence will be about. The remainder of the sentence relates new information about this topic; not only does the wicked person speak evil, but he even "plots [it] while on his bed."
• v. 5c - Similar to אָוֶן (v. 5a), the fronted constituent רָע represents the topic of the sentence. The rest of the sentence relates new information about it — the wicked person "(certainly) does not refuse [it]." Yet this instance of topic selection is different from אָוֶן in that רָע is not chosen from a previously activated set (such as אָוֶן from אָוֶן וּמִרְמָה). Instead, the psalmist selects רָע "from an open set of possible candidates for the role of topic" (Khan and Van der Merwe 2020, 25).
• v. 6a - The default word order for verbless clauses is subject-predicate (BHRG §46.2.3.1). This line exhibits non-default word order in that the predicate (בְּהַשָּׁמַיִם) appears before the subject (חַסְדֶּךָ), however the effect of this order is purely poetic, forming a chiasm with the following line: A (prep. phrase + noun, suffix) // B (noun, suffix + prep. phrase).
• v. 7c - The fronted אָדָם־וּבְהֵמָה "humans and animals" represents marked focus. The set of alternatives from which "humans and animals" are chosen is creation. The mention of "sky," "clouds," and "great deep" indicates that all of creation is in view, from which the psalmist selects only "humans and animals" as the beneficiaries of YHWH's deliverance (cf. "Selective Focus" in Khan and Van der Merwe 2020, 20-21).
• v. 8b - The fronted phrase, אֱלֹהִים וּבְנֵי אָדָם "divine beings and people," represents a topic shift. "Divine beings and people" are the subjects of vv. 8b, 9a, and are the direct objects of 9b. In vv. 8b and 9a the focus is on what is said about "divine beings and people" — they take refuge and drink to the full. As the direct objects of v. 9b, the focus is on the fact that they are given the river to drink from by YHWH. Also preposed before the verb is the prepositional phrase בְּצֵל כְּנָפֶיךָ "within the protection of your wings," which represents marked focus. The idea is that divine beings and people take refuge only within the protection of YHWH's wings.
• v. 9b - The non-default word order of this B line is for poetic effect, as it completes a chiasm begun in the A line: A (verb, adverbial + suffix) // B (adverbial + suffix, verb) (see Lunn 2006, 106).
• v. 10a - The default word order for verbless clauses is subject-predicate (BHRG §46.2.3.1). This line exhibits non-default word order in that the predicate (עִמְּךָ) appears before the subject (מְקוֹר חַיִּים). This line's non-default order, however, is likely for poetic effect and does not represent an instance of marked topic or focus. The fronted constituent of the A line (PP with 2ms suffix) corresponds with the fronted constituent of the B line (PP with 2ms suffix).
• v. 10b - See previous note.
• v. 12b - The non-default word order of this B line is for poetic effect, as it completes a chiasm begun in the A line: A (verb, subject) // B (subject, verb) (see Lunn 2006, 106).
• v. 13a - For the fronting of שָׁ֣ם, see the note on the discourse marker, below.

Vocatives & Discourse Markers

• vv. 6a and 7c - The first vocative (יְהוָה) appears at the beginning of a new poetic section (vv. 6-10) and functions to signal the beginning of a turn in the psalm from descriptions of the wicked person (vv. 2-5) to praise of YHWH (vv. 6-10) (see Kim 2023, 136). The second vocative (יְהוָה) appears at the end of a sub-section (vv. 6-7) and aids in determining where this line/section ends and a new line/section begins (see Miller 2010, 361). Both of these vocatives form an inclusio around vv. 6-7, delimiting it as the "meaningful centre" of the psalm (Labuschagne 2006, 1; see Poetic Structure note).
• v. 8 - Most ancient versions and modern translations understand אֱלֹהִים as a vocative (e.g., LXX - ὡς ἐπλήθυνας τὸ ἔλεός σου, ὁ θεός "How you increased your mercy, O God!" (NETS); ESV - "How precious is your steadfast love, O God!"). Though this option is not preferred (see forthcoming Exegetical Issue and Grammar note), the function of אלהים as a vocative could be to assist in delimiting poetic lines; because it would occur at the end of a clause as a vocative, אֱלֹהִים marks the end of a poetic line (see Miller 2010, 361).

Conjunctions

• v. 3a - This כִּי clause provides the reason why the wicked person lacks the "fear of God" (v. 2b); specifically, it identifies and describes the event that led to such lack of fear. Read this way, it becomes clear that the consequence/result of the wicked person's deception (i.e., his self-flattery) is that he does not, indeed cannot, fear God and so relate to him as he should (for an explanation of this "metalinguistic causal" use of כי, see Locatell 2017, 169-179).
• vv. 3-4 - Two pairs of לְ plus infinitive construct phrases appear in vv. 3-4. The first of each pair is subordinate to the preceding text. The second of each pair is coordinated to the first asyndetically, resulting in the renderings: "finding...and hating"; "to act wisely and to do good."
• v. 6-7 - The lack of formal coordination among these clauses, in addition to their terseness, creates a staccato-like effect across this section in which each clause seems to follow the previous in rapid succession. On a discourse-level, the effect of such rapid succession (facilitated by the lack of formal coordination) is to mark this section as especially prominent within the psalm.
• v. 10a - The previous two clauses (v. 9ab) feature prominently water terms and imagery; within YHWH's house, divine beings and people "drink" and are "give[n] drink" from YHWH's delightful "stream." This information gives rise to the question: "How is it possible for divine beings and people to 'drink' and be 'give[n] drink' from YHWH's 'stream'? Where does this water come from?" The following כִּי clause provides the answer: such water/drink comes from YHWH, "because the spring (i.e., source) of life is with YHWH." The כִּי clause thus provides the explanation as to why divine beings and people can and do drink within YHWH's house.
• v. 13 - Of the three verbal clauses in v. 13, only the last two are formally coordinated (דֹּחוּ וְלֹא־יָכְלוּ). Although the first (נָפְלוּ) is not formally coordinated with the others (indicated by waw), it should still be seen as conceptually coordinated based on its similar semantic profile. In other words, all three verbs are qatals and together provide the answer/resolution to the psalmist's plea in vv. 11-12: "That evildoers have fallen, been thrust down, and are not able to stand up indicates that YHWH has continued his devotion and righteousness and has not allowed wicked people to triumph over the psalmist" (cf. Verbal Semantics).

Speech Act Analysis

Summary Visual

Notes

• Due to the mishmash of literary types within Ps 36, assigning it to a single genre has proven difficult. Observing this dilemma, Dahood notes that, "The coexistence of three literary types within a poem of thirteen verses points up the limitations of the form-critical approach to the Psalter" (Dahood 1966, 218). Notwithstanding these limitations, Ps 36 has been classified as a prayer (DeClaissé-Walford et al. 2014, 338), a hymn (Ho 2023), a wisdom psalm (Craigie 2004, 291; Schmidt 1934, 68), a composite composition (Briggs and Briggs 1906, 314), and as didactic poetry (Kraus 1988, 397).
• Psalm 36 consists of four distinct global speech acts: a warning (about listening to Rebellion) (vv. 2-5); an exaltation (of YHWH's loyalty) (vv. 6-10); a request (for continued loyalty) (vv. 11-12); and an assurance (of continued loyalty) (v. 13). The first section of the psalm (vv. 2-5) contains a litany of descriptions regarding Rebellion and its disastrous consequences; Rebellion leads the wicked person into all manner of evil. The intent of this section, which is addressed to YHWH's people, is to warn them about Rebellion's negative influence. The second section (vv. 6-10) also contains a plethora of descriptions, but in the form of praise directed to YHWH. The purpose of this section is to exalt YHWH, specifically his loyalty, and thus portray its superiority to listening to Rebellion's voice. The third section (vv. 11-12) is a direct request to YHWH that he continue the loyalty described in the previous section. The psalm's final section (v. 13) offers assurance that YHWH has indeed continued his loyalty in that those affected by Rebellion — evildoers — have fallen in defeat.

Speech Act Chart

• v. 8a - It is important to note that "The line between a question and an exclamation is often ill-defined" (JM §162a), as is evidenced by מַה which can signal both. Of the available sentence types (declarative, imperative, interrogative), this phrase can be classified as an interrogative based on the presence of the interrogative/exclamatory marker מַה. The context suggests treating the phrase as an exclamation rather than a question, for a question ("How precious is your devotion?") would seem out of place within a section praising YHWH. Thus, an exclamation ("How precious is your devotion!") fits the context best as a continuation of David's praise.

Emotional Analysis

Summary visual

Think-Feel-Do Chart

Notes

• Psalm 36 exhibits a fairly straightforward emotional progression: the psalmist feels threatened by Rebellion's influence and its potential to corrupt one to total evil (vv. 2-5); expresses his confidence/joy/triumph in YHWH's loyalty — its ability to protect, provide for, and deliver his people (vv. 6-10); pleads with YHWH, longing for the continuation of his loyalty (vv. 11-12); expresses confidence/joy/triumph that YHWH's loyalty has continued in the form of destroying evil(doers) (v. 13).

Participant analysis

There are 3 participants/characters in Psalm 36: File:Psalm 036 - PA participant notes.jpg

• Enemies: It is unclear whether the enemies in Ps 36 are from within (i.e., fellow Israelites) or without (i.e., foreign powers), yet the descriptions of YHWH's attributes and the allusions to the temple suggest that they are "criminally minded, powerful and arrogant Israelites or Judaeans" (Botha 2004, 518). A singular wicked person is the focus of vv. 2-5 and appears to be representative of a larger group referred to later as "arrogant" (v. 12), "wicked" (v. 12), and "evildoers" (v. 13) (cf. Botha 2004, 517; le Mat 1957, 68). The enemies set themselves up against YHWH and David (and, by extension, YHWH's people). Because of their hostility towards YHWH and his people, such enemies fall, are thrust down, and are not able to stand up (v. 13); in other words, they die.
• Rebellion: Rebellion is personified as an "inspiring demon" who, masquerading as a prophet, speaks to the wicked person (Gunkel 1926, 152; cf. Gen 4:7; Ps 119:133b) and flatters him (see The Syntax and Meaning of Ps. 36:3). Instead of listening to the נאם יהוה "declaration of YHWH," the wicked person heeds its antithesis — the נאם פשׁע "declaration of Rebellion."
• Animals: The mention of "humans and animals" (v. 7) could be meristic, encapsulating "the totality of living beings" (Botha 2004, 511n17; Hossfeld and Zenger 1993, 227). The inclusion of animals in v. 7 is fitting in light of the preceding creation language (e.g., sky, clouds, etc.). Here, as in other places (cf. Jonah 4:11; Pss 104:14; 147:9), YHWH demonstrates his concern for both humans and animals.

Participant Relations Diagram

The relationships among the participants may be abstracted and summarized as follows:

Participant Analysis Table

Notes

vv. 2-5: The Identity of the Addressee

• Unlike vv. 6-12 which is addressed to YHWH, the addressee of vv. 2-5 is unspecified. Within the section addressed to YHWH, a group is referred to as "those who know you" (v. 11), and "the upright in heart" (v. 11). Taken together, these references suggest that "YHWH's people" are in view as the likely addressee of vv. 2-5. This is further evidenced by the juxtaposition of this group with "arrogant [people]" and "wicked [people]" (v. 12) (i.e., not YHWH's people; see Botha 2004).

v. 3a: The subject(s) and referent(s) of כִּי־הֶחֱלִיק אֵלָיו בְּעֵינָיו For he has flattered himself in his eyes

• For a fuller treatment of the participants involved in v. 3a, see The Syntax and Meaning of Ps. 36:3.

vv. 8-10: The subject(s) of יֶחֱסָיוּן, יִרְוְיֻן, and נִרְאֶה YHWH's people or both YHWH's people and Divine Beings?

• The subject(s) of three verbs is/are determined by whether אֱלֹהִים (v. 8) is grouped with the preceding clause as a vocative (so ESV) or the succeeding clause as part of a compound subject (so REB). If the former, the subject is בְנֵי אָדָם "people"; if the latter, the subjects are both בְנֵי אָדָם "people" and אֱלֹהִים "divine beings." The latter is preferred so that "divine beings and people" both "take refuge," "drink to the full," and "see" light. For a fuller treatment on the position of אֱלֹהִים, see The Division of Ps. 36:8.
• The person shift at v. 10, from third to first, most likely marks the end of a section (see de Regt 2000).

v. 13: The Identity of the Addressee

• That the addressee switches back to YHWH's people here, and does not continue with YHWH, is not signalled by an overt person-shift, for third-person language appears throughout vv. 12-13. Based on the parallels with v. 5 however, there is reason to believe that the psalmist stops addressing YHWH and begins to address YHWH's people again: both include a three-fold description of the wicked person(s) (with three verbs in each), along with a contrast between where the wicked person stands (v. 5b) and where he falls down (v. 13a; see Botha 2004, 516n30).

Bibliography

Botha, P.J. 2004. “The Textual Strategy and Ideology of Psalm 36.” Old Testament Essays 17 (4): 506–20.

Briggs, Charles A., and Emilie Briggs. 1906. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Psalms. Vol. 1. ICC. Edinburgh: T & T Clark.

Craigie, Peter C. 2004. Psalms 1–50. 2nd ed. Vol. 19. Word Biblical Commentary. Nashville, TN: Nelson Reference & Electronic.

Dahood, Mitchell. 1966. Psalms. Vol. 1. Anchor Bible Commentary. New York: Doubleday.

DeClaissé-Walford, Nancy L., Rolf A. Jacobson, and Beth LaNeel Tanner. 2014. The Book of Psalms. NICOT. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

de Regt, Lénart J. 1996. “Discourse Implications of Rhetorical Questions in Job, Deuteronomy and the Minor Prophets.” In Literary Structure and Rhetorical Strategies in the Hebrew Bible. Assen: Van Gorcum.

García Macías, José Hugo. 2016. "From the Unexpected to the Unbelievable: Thetics, Miratives and Exclamatives in Conceptual Space." PhD Diss. The University of New Mexico.

Gunkel, Hermann. 1926. Die Psalmen. 4th ed. Göttinger Handkommentar Zum Alten Testament 2. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

Ho, Peter C. W. 2023. "The Macrostructural Design and Logic of the Psalter: An Unfurling of the Davidic Covenant." In Reading the Psalms Theologically. Edited by David M. Howard Jr. and Andrew J. Schmutzer. Lexham Academic.

Honeyman, A. M. 1952. “Merismus in Biblical Hebrew.” Journal of Biblical Literature 71 (1): 11–18.

Hossfeld, Frank-Lothar, and Erich Zenger. 1993. Die Psalmen I: Psalm 1–50. Neue Echter Bibel. Würzburg: Echter.

Khan, Geoffrey, and Christo H.J. Van Der Merwe. 2020. “Towards A Comprehensive Model For Interpreting Word Order In Classical Biblical Hebrew.” Journal of Semitic Studies 65 (2): 347–90.

Kraus, Hans-Joachim. 1988. Psalms 1-59: A Commentary. Minneapolis: Augsburg Pub. House.

Labuschagne, Casper J. 2006. https://www.labuschagne.nl/ps036.pdf

Locatell, Christian S. 2017. “Grammatical Polysemy in the Hebrew Bible: A Cognitive Linguistic Approach to כי.” PhD Dissertation, Stellenbosch: University of Stellenbosch.

Mat, Louis Alexis Frederic le. 1957. Textual Criticism and Exegesis of Psalm XXXVI; a Contribution to the Study of the Hebrew Book of Psalms. Studia Theologica Rheno-Traiectina; v. 3. Utrecht: Kemink.

Miller-Naudé, Cynthia L., and C. H. J. van der Merwe. 2011. “הִנֵּה and Mirativity in Biblical Hebrew.” Hebrew Studies 52:53–81.

Schmidt, Hans. 1934. Die Psalmen. Tübingen.