The Text, Grammar, and Meaning of Ps. 36:2a

Back to Psalm 36.

Exegetical issues for Psalm 36:

• The Text, Grammar, and Meaning of Ps. 36:2a
• The Syntax and Meaning of Ps. 36:3
• The Division of Ps. 36:8

Introduction

The Hebrew text of Ps. 36:2a reads:

נְאֻֽם־פֶּ֣שַׁע לָ֭רָשָׁע בְּקֶ֣רֶב לִבִּ֑י

The textual and grammatical difficulties of this phrase have led some scholars to the resignation that, "In spite of many suggestions, the original text cannot be recovered." The considerable divergence among modern translations seems to support this notion. The following translations represent the variety with which Ps. 36:2a is rendered:

• Transgression speaks to the wicked deep in his heart (ESV)
• Sin is the oracle of the wicked in the depths of his heart (NJB)
• A sinner ponders iniquity / in the bottom of his heart (LUT)
• The wicked man's word of rebellion penetrates deep into my heart (S21)
• I have a message from God in my heart concerning the sinfulness of the wicked (NIV)
• Says the transgressor of the law in himself, in order to sin (NETS)

The differences among these translations prompt the following questions:

• Who or what is the speaker? A sinner (LUT) or transgression (ESV)?
• Whose heart is it? The wicked person's ("his" - ESV, NJB) or the psalmist's ("my" - S21, NIV)?
• What is the function of the prepositional phrase לרשׁע? Does the ל preposition indicate the recipient of the declaration (ESV), the possessor of the declaration (NJB, S21; cf. NIV), the object of a verb (LUT), or a purpose clause (NETS)?

Argument Maps

To navigate directly to the relevant argument maps, click on the issue of interest below:

The Text of פשׁע

The Text of לִבִּי/לִבּוֹ

The Grammar of לָרָשָׁע

The textual issues in Ps 36:2a include (1) the correct vocalization of פשׁע (פֹּשֵׁעַ "rebel" or פֶּשַׁע "rebellion") and (2) the correct suffix for לב (לִבִּי "my heart" or לִבּוֹ "his heart").

פֶּשַׁע "rebellion" or פֹּשֵׁעַ "rebel"

The first textual issue pertains to the correct vocalization of פשׁע. The ancient witnesses are divided as to whether פשׁע should be vocalized as a common noun, פֶּשַׁע "rebellion," or as a substantival participle, פֹּשֵׁעַ "rebel." Is the speaker of this phrase sin personified, פֶּשַׁע "rebellion," or a sinful person, פֹּשֵׁעַ "rebel"? The translations below represent both views:

• Common noun (sin personified): Transgression speaks to the wicked deep in his heart (ESV)
• Substantival participle (sinful person): A sinner ponders iniquity / in the bottom of his heart (LUT)

פֶּשַׁע "rebellion" (preferred)

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[פֶּשַׁע]: פשׁע is a common noun (rebellion).
 + <Ancient Witnesses>: Certain ancient witnesses vocalize, translate, or transliterate פשׁע as a common noun.
  + [Ancient Witnesses]: E.g., MT - פֶּשַׁע; Secunda - φεσα; Aquila - ἀθεσία "faithlessness"; Sym. -  ἀσυνθεσίας "unfaithfulness"; Quinta - ἀσέβεια "ungodliness."
 - <Prophetic Formula>: נאם is "normally followed by the name of a God (usually the Lord) or a person...or by a description of a person," not a common noun (deClaissé-Walford, et al 2014, 341 :C:; DCH :L:).#dispreferred
  + [Prophetic Formula]: Gen 22:16 - נְאֻם־יְהוָה; Num 24:3 - נְאֻם בִּלְעָם; Num 24:4 - נְאֻם שֹׁמֵעַ.#dispreferred
  <_ <Personification>: Rebellion (פֶּשַׁע) is personified in the same way that words for "sin" are personified elsewhere.
   + [Personification of Sin]: E.g., Gen 4:7 - חַטָּאת רֹבֵץ "sin is crouching" (ESV); Ps 119:133b - וְאַל־תַּשְׁלֶט־בִּי כָל־אָוֶן "and let no iniquity get dominion over me" (ESV); Job 15:5 - יְאַלֵּף עֲוֹנְךָ פִיך "your iniquity teaches your mouth" (ESV).

פֹּשֵׁעַ "rebel"

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[פֹּשֵׁעַ]: פשׁע is a substantival participle (rebel).#dispreferred
 + <Ancient Witnesses>: Certain ancient witnesses translate פשׁע as a substantival participle.#dispreferred
  + [Ancient Witnesses]: LXX - ὁ παράνομος "the transgressor of the law" (NETS); Syr.  - ܥܘܠܐ "the ungodly man" (Taylor).#dispreferred
 + <Prophetic Formula>: נאם is "normally followed by the name of a God (usually the Lord) or a person...or by a description of a person," not a common noun (deClaissé-Walford, et al 2014, 341 :C:; DCH :L:).#dispreferred
  + [Prophetic Formula]: Gen 22:16 - נְאֻם־יְהוָה; Num 24:3 - נְאֻם בִּלְעָם; Num 24:4 - נְאֻם שֹׁמֵעַ.#dispreferred

לִבִּי "my heart" or לִבּוֹ "his heart"

The ancient witnesses exhibit variety as to whose heart (לֵב) is referred to. Some read a third-person suffix (לִבּוֹ "his heart") which identifies the wicked person as the possessor (so Aquila, Syr.; cf. ESV, LUT, ELB, ZÜR); other witnesses read a first-person suffix (לִבִּי "my heart") which identifies the psalmist as the possessor (so MT, TgPs.; cf. NIV, CSB, EÜ). The translations below are representative of both views:

• Third-person: Transgression speaks to the wicked deep in his heart (ESV)
• First-person: An oracle within my heart concerning the transgression of the wicked person (CSB)

לִבּוֹ "his heart" (preferred)

 
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[לִבּוֹ]: The earlier form of the text reads לִבּוֹ: "his heart."
 + <Early Attestation>: The third-person suffix/reading is attested in certain ancient witnesses. 
  + [Early Attestation]: LXX - ἑαυτῷ; Syr. - ܒܠܒܗ; Vulg. - ipso; Aquila - αὐτο̣ῦ̣; Secunda - λέβ̣β̣ω̣; Kennicott 649.
 + <Context>: לִבּוֹ fits well within the context in which third-person language abounds (cf. Kraus 1988, 397 :C:).
  + [Context]: v. 2 - עֵינָיו "his eyes"; v. 3 - אֵלָיו בְּעֵינָיו "himself in his own eyes"; עֲוֺנוֹ "his iniquity"; v. 4 - פִיו "his mouth"; v. 5 - מִשְׁכָּבוֹ "his bed"
 + <Parallelism>: לִבּוֹ (third-person) in the A line is parallel with עֵינָיו (third-person) in the B line (Fokkelman 2003, 57 :M:).
 + <Structure of the Psalm>: A "principle characteristic" of the psalm, facilitated by the "distribution of grammatical persons," is that "the first person remains reserved for the final stanza" (Fokkelman 2003, 57 :M:).
 - <Less Difficult Reading>: לִבּוֹ is the less difficult reading and is therefore derivative, later. #dispreferred
  <_ <Difficult Reading>: The text-critical principle of "the more difficult reading is to be preferred" cannot be applied without reservation, for it does not take into account scribal errors which create difficult readings (Tov 2022, 401 :M:).
 - <Direct Speech>: The prophetic formula (נְאֻם followed by a proper noun/substantival participle) is always surrounded by, or is part of, direct speech. Reading לִבּוֹ, however, means that there is no direct speech. #dispreferred
  + [Direct Speech]: E.g., Gen 22:16 - בִּי נִשְׁבַּעְתִּי נְאֻם־יְהוָה "By myself I have sworn, declares the LORD" (ESV); Num 14:28 - חַי־אָנִי נְאֻם־יְהוָה "As I live, declares the LORD" (ESV); Ps 110:1 - נְאֻם יְהוָה לַאדֹנִי שֵׁב לִימִינִי "The LORD says to my Lord: Sit at my right hand" (ESV).#dispreferred
  <_ <Unique Usage>: The unique usage of the (pseudo) prophetic formula in v. 2 (נאם followed by a common noun) justifies the absence of direct speech. In contrast to occurrences of the prophetic formula elsewhere, "the poet of Ps 36 has formed the sentence in such a way that he does not quote the direct words of sin or of the wicked, but only describes the behavior of the latter" (Baethgen 1904, 102 :C:).
  <_ <Incoherent Speech Content>: If נְאֻם־פֶּשַׁע לָרָשָׁע "transgression (speaks) to the wicked person" precedes direct speech, what is said — בְּקֶרֶב לִבִּי/לִבּוֹ "in the midst of my/his heart" — is fragmentary and incoherent.

לִבִּי "my heart"

 
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[לִבִּי]: The earlier form of the text reads לִבִּי: "my heart."#dispreferred
 + <Early Attestation>: The first-person pronominal suffix is attested in certain ancient witnesses.#dispreferred
  + [Early Attestation]: MT - לִבִּי; TgPs. - לבבי.#dispreferred
 + <MT Transmission>: Because of the "striking carefulness in the handing down of the consonantal text of Ps. 36" it is therefore "unadvisable to alter לבי into לבו" (le Mat 1957, 8 :M:).#dispreferred
  <_ <Transmission>: Though carefully preserved, MT does contain instances of "unconscious and mechanical mistakes of hearing, reading, or writing" (Würthwein 2014, 172 :M:).
 + <More Difficult Reading>: לִבִּי is the more difficult reading and is therefore earlier (Yamayoshi 2013, 55-56 :A:).#dispreferred
  <_ <Difficult Reading>: The text-critical principle of "the more difficult reading is to be preferred" cannot be applied without reservation, for it does not take into account scribal errors which create difficult readings (Tov 2022, 401 :M:).
 + <Direct Speech>: The prophetic formula (נאם followed by a proper noun/substantival participle) is always surrounded by, or is part of, direct speech. Reading לִבִּי allows for the following text to be understand as direct speech (cf. NIV).#dispreferred
  + [Direct Speech]: E.g., Gen 22:16 - בִּי נִשְׁבַּעְתִּי נְאֻם־יְהוָה "By myself I have sworn, declares the LORD" (ESV); Num 14:28 - חַי־אָנִי נְאֻם־יְהוָה "As I live, declares the LORD" (ESV); Ps 110:1 - נְאֻם יְהוָה לַאדֹנִי שֵׁב לִימִינִי "The LORD says to my Lord: Sit at my right hand" (ESV).#dispreferred
  <_ <Unique Usage>: The unique usage of the (pseudo) prophetic formula in v. 2 (נאם followed by a common noun) justifies the absence of direct speech. In contrast to occurrences of the prophetic formula elsewhere, "the poet of Ps 36 has formed the sentence in such a way that he does not quote the direct words of sin or of the wicked, but only describes the behavior of the latter" (Baethgen 1904, 102 :C:).
  <_ <Incoherent Speech Content>: If נְאֻם־פֶּשַׁע לָרָשָׁע "transgression (speaks) to the wicked person" precedes direct speech, what is said — בְּקֶרֶב לִבִּי/לִבּוֹ "in the midst of my/his heart" — is fragmentary and incoherent. 
 + <First-Person Inclusio>: The first-person introduction to speech (v. 2a) corresponds with the first-person conclusion (v. 12) (Hossfeld 1993, 225).#dispreferred
 + <Introduction and Quotation>: First-person language distinguishes the introduction (v. 2a) from the quotation (v. 2b) (Hossfeld 1993, 225).#dispreferred

The Function of לָרָשָׁע

How should the prepositional phrase לרשע, and the ל preposition in particular, be understood? Does the ל preposition indicate the recipient, the possessor, the object, or purpose? These four options reflect three different vocalizations of the consonantal text: רָשָׁע (adj. - recipient, possessor; so MT, ESV, NIV), רֶשַׁע (noun - object; so Syr., LUT), and רְשֹׁעַ (inf. cstr. - purpose; so LXX). The translations below represent the four options:

• Recipient:
  • Transgression speaks to the wicked deep in his heart (ESV)
  • Sin whispers to the wicked, deep within their hearts (NLT)
• Possessor:
  • I have a message from God in my heart concerning the sinfulness of the wicked (NIV)
  • The wicked man's word of rebellion penetrates deep into my heart (S21)
• Object:
  • The ungodly man devises wickedness in his heart (Taylor)
  • A sinner ponders iniquity / in the bottom of his heart (LUT)
• Purpose:
  • Says the transgressor of the law in himself, in order to sin (NETS)

Recipient (preferred)

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[Recipient]: The ל preposition indicates the recipient (ESV: Transgression speaks to the wicked...).
 + <ל of Destination>: The ל prep. can indicate "the destination of a process of ''saying''" (BHRG §39.11.1.1.d :G:).
  + [ל of Destination]: Gen 15:13 - וַיֹּאמֶר לְאַבְרָם "he said to Abram"; 1 Sam 9:6 -  וַיֹּאמֶר לוֹ "he said to him"
 + <Prophetic Formula>: Elsewhere in the Psalter, when a ל prep. follows the prophetic formula (נאם followed by a proper noun/substantival participle), it indicates the recipient.
  + [Ps 110:1]: נְאֻם יְהוָה לַאדֹנִי "The LORD says to my Lord" (ESV).

Possessor

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[Possessor]: The ל preposition indicates the possessor (NIV: ...sinfulness of the wicked).#dispreferred
 + <ל of Possession>: The ל prep. can indicate the "possessor in a relationship of possession" (BHRG §39.11.1.3 :G:).#dispreferred
  + [ל of Possession]: 1 Sam 9:3 - הָאֲתֹנוֹת לְקִישׁ "the donkeys of Kish"; 1 Kgs 14:11 - הַמֵּת לְיָרָבְעָם "anyone belonging to Jeroboam who dies."#dispreferred
 - <Construct Chain>: Possession is normally expressed with a construct chain.
  <_ <Definiteness>: If the first and last term in a construct phrase differ in definiteness, as they do here, "the construct relationship cannot be used, but the preposition ְל is used to express the 'possessive construction'" (BHRG §25.3.2.2 :G:; cf. Goldingay 2006, 505fn.a :C:).#dispreferred

Object

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[Object]: The ל preposition indicates the object (LUT: A sinner ponders iniquity...).#dispreferred
 + <ל Indicating Object>: In late(r) Hebrew, "ל is quite often used as an indicator of the accusative of the determinate direct object noun" (JM §125k :G:).#dispreferred
  + [ל Indicating Object]: Ps 69:6 - אַתָּה יָדַעְתָּ לְאִוַּלְתִּי "you know my folly"; Job 5:2 - כִּי־לֶאֱוִיל יַהֲרָג־כָּעַשׂ "surely vexation kills the fool."#dispreferred
 + <Peshitta>: The Peshitta translates/interprets לרשׁע as a direct object.#dispreferred
  + [Peshitta]: Syr. - ܡܬܚܫܒ ܥܘܠܐ ܪܘܫܥܐ ܒܠܒܗ "The ungodly man devises wickedness in his heart" (Taylor).#dispreferred

Purpose

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[Purpose]: The ל preposition indicates purpose (NETS: ...in order to sin).#dispreferred
 + <ל Indicating Purpose>: When prefixed to an infinitive construct, ל can indicate a purpose clause (IBHS 36.2.3d :G:).#dispreferred
  + [1 Kgs 5:14]: וַיָּבֹאוּ מִכָּל־הָעַמִּים לִשְׁמֹעַ אֵת חָכְמַת שְׁלֹמֹה "And people of all nations came to hear the wisdom of Solomon" (ESV). #dispreferred
 + <LXX>: The LXX translates/interprets לרשׁע as a purpose clause.#dispreferred
  + [LXX]: LXX - Φησὶν ὁ παράνομος τοῦ ἁμαρτάνειν ἐν ἑαυτῷ "Says the transgressor of the law in himself, in order to sin" (NETS).#dispreferred

Conclusion

The ESV includes each of the preferred readings within the argument maps above: Transgression speaks to the wicked deep in his heart (cf. NEB, ELB, ZÜR, NVI, DHH).

The correct vocalization of פשׁע is most likely the common noun, פֶּשַׁע "rebellion." The speaker is thus sin personified — transgression (ESV). This reading is supported by certain ancient witnesses which either vocalize, translate, or transliterate פשׁע as a common noun. The personification of a term that denotes "sin" is not unique to Ps 36:2a, for such personification occurs elsewhere (Gen 4:7; Job 15:5).

Regarding the suffix for לב, the earliest reading is most likely the third-person suffix — לִבּוֹ "his heart" — in which the heart belongs to the wicked person. This reading is supported by certain ancient witnesses and fits well in the context. At some point during the transmission of the Hebrew text, the third-person suffix — ו (waw) — was mistakenly read and copied for the similar-looking first-person suffix — י (yod) — resulting in the reading לִבִּי. Thus, לִבִּי "my heart" is the result of scribal error.

Regarding the grammar of the prepositional phrase לרשׁע, the ל preposition most likely indicates the recipient of rebellion's speech: "Transgression speaks to the wicked..." (ESV). Elsewhere in the Psalter the same construction — the prophetic formula followed by a ל preposition — appears in which the context makes clear that the ל preposition indicates the recipient of someone else's speech (cf. Ps 110:1).

To summarize, "transgression" represents the common noun פֶּשַׁע (sin personified), "to the wicked" indicates the recipient of transgression's speech, and "his heart" represents the third-person suffix, indicating that the heart belongs to the wicked person. The sense of Ps 36:2a is that "transgression," as an "inspiring demon," speaks to the wicked person in the midst of his heart — in his inner being. Whereas the typical prophetic formula is נְאֻם־יְהוָה, the uniqueness of נְאֻם־פֶּשַׁע draws attention to the striking idea that "transgression", not YHWH, is the speaker of the prophetic message. Through this unique formula, the psalmist communicates that "the voice of sin which man hears speaking in his heart has for the wicked the same authority and power as the voice of God has for the prophets." The wicked person is thus influenced, not as he should be by YHWH, but by transgression and is wholly under its influence.

Research

Translations

Ancient

• LXX: Φησὶν ὁ παράνομος τοῦ ἁμαρτάνειν ἐν ἑαυτῷ,
  • "Says the transgressor of the law in himself, in order to sin:"
• Secunda: νουμ φεσα λαρεσα βε̣κορ̣β λέβ̣β̣ω̣
• Aquila: φησὶν ἀθεσία τῶι ἀσεβεῖ ἐν ἐγκάτωι καρδίας αὐτο̣ῦ̣
• Symmachus: φησὶν πε(ρὶ) ἀσυνθεσίας τοῦ ἀσ̣εβοῦς ἔνδοθεν ἡ καρδία μου
• Quinta: φησὶν ἀσέβεια τῷου ἁ̣μαρτωλῶιοῦ ἐν μέσῳ κα̣ρδίας αὐτοῦ· ἑαυτ(ῷ)
• Peshitta: ܡܬܚܫܒ ܥܘܠܐ ܪܘܫܥܐ ܒܠܒܗ܂
  • "The ungodly man devises wickedness in his heart,"
• Jerome: Dixit scelus impii in medio cordis eius
• Targum: אמר מרדא לחייבא במציעות לבבי
  • "Transgression speaks to the wicked within his^a1 heart;"

Modern

Common Noun ("transgression")

Third-Person Suffix ("his/their heart(s)")

• Transgression speaks to the wicked deep in his heart; (ESV)
• Sin speaks to the wicked deep in their hearts; (GNT)
• Sin whispers to the wicked, deep within their hearts. (NLT)
• Deep in his heart, sin whispers to the wicked man (NEB)
• Transgression speaks to the wicked deep in their hearts; (NRSV)
• Die Sünde sitzt tief im Herzen des Gottlosen und flüstert ihm zu, was er tun soll. (NGÜ)
• Die Übertretung spricht zum Gottlosen im Innern seines Herzens: (ELB)
• Die Sünde raunt dem Frevler zu im Innern seines Herzens: (ZÜR)
• El pecado habla al malvado en lo profundo de su corazón. (NVI)
• La maldad habla al malvado en lo íntimo de su corazón. (DHH)

First-Person Suffix ("my heart")

• I know what Transgression says to the wicked; (JPS 1985)
• Spruch der Sünde zum Frevler inmitten meines Herzens: (EÜ)

Third-Person Suffix ("his heart")

• Sin is the oracle of the wicked in the depths of his heart; (NJB)
• A wicked person's talk is prompted by sin in his heart; (REB)

First-Person Suffix ("my heart")

• I have a message from God in my heart concerning the sinfulness of the wicked: (NIV)
• L'oracle impie de l'infidèle me vient à l'esprit; (TOB)
• La parole de révolte du méchant est au fond de mon cœur, (NVSR)
• Au fond de mon cœur, je me rappelle une phrase de l’homme mauvais. (PDV)
• La parole de révolte du méchant pénètre au fond de mon cœur: (S21)
• La maldad del impío me dice al corazón: (RVR95)
• El dicho inicuo del impío me dice al corazón: (BTX4)

Substantival Participle ("sinner")

Third-Person Suffix ("his heart")

• Es sinnt der Sünder auf Frevel / im Grund seines Herzens, (LUT)

Third-Person Suffix ("his heart)

• Says the transgressor of the law in himself, in order to sin (NETS)

Unclear

• Sinners don't respect God; (CEV)
• an oracle. An evil man is rebellious to the core. (NET)
• Der Gottlose wird durch und durch von der Sünde beherrscht; (HFA)
• Die Aufsässigkeit gegen Gott liegt den Bösen im Blut, (GNB)
• Pour le méchant, la déclaration de transgression est au fond de mon cœur, (NBS)
• En moi-même, je médite ╵sur ce que déclare ╵le méchant dans son péché ; (BDS)
• J'ai à l'esprit cette formule qui exprime la révolte du méchant : (NFC)

Secondary Literature

Baethgen, Friedrich. 1904. Die Psalmen. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht.

deClaissé-Walford, Nancy L., Rolf A. Jacobson, and Beth LaNeel Tanner. 2014. The Book of Psalms. NICOT. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

Fokkelman, J.P. 2003. Major Poems of the Hebrew Bible: At the Interface of Prosody and Structural Analysis (Vol 3: The Remaining 65 Psalms). Vol. 3. Studia Semitica Neerlandica. Van Gorcum.

Goldingay, John. 2006. Psalms: Psalms 1–41. Vol. 1. Baker Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic.

Gunkel, Hermann. 1926. Die Psalmen. 4th ed. Göttinger Handkommentar Zum Alten Testament 2. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

Hossfeld, Frank-Lothar, and Erich Zenger. 1993. Die Psalmen I: Psalm 1–50. Neue Echter Bibel. Würzburg: Echter.

Kraus, Hans-Joachim. 1993. Psalms 1–59: A Continental Commentary. Minneapolis: Fortress.

le Mat, Louis Alexis Frederic. 1957. Textual Criticism and Exegesis of Psalm XXXVI: A Contribution to the Study of the Hebrew Book of Psalms. Studia Theologica Rheno-Traiectina; v. 3. Utrecht: Kemink.

Ofer, Yosef. 2004. "Waw-Yod Interchanges in the Bible And their Reflection in Masora Notes." Zvi Betzer Memorial Volume: Mehkere Morashtenu: 69-84.

Tov, Emanuel. 2022. Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible. Revised and expanded fourth edition. Minneapolis: Fortress Press.

Weiser, Artur. 2000. The Psalms: A Commentary. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press.

Würthwein, Ernst, 1909-1996., and Alexander A. Fischer. 2014. The Text of the Old Testament : An Introduction to the Biblia Hebraica. Third edition. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

Yamayoshi, Tomohisa. 2013. "'Raunen des Verbrechens zum Frevler inmitten meines Herzens': Versuch einer biblisch-theologischen Auslegung von Ps 36,2." Annual of the Japanese Biblical Institute 38: 53-77.

References

36:2