About the Semantics Layer[ ]

Semantics is the study of how language is used to represent meaning. The goal of semantic analysis for interpreting and translating the Bible is to understand the meaning of words and how they relate to each other in context. We want to understand what is implicit about word meaning – and thus assumed by the original audience – and make it explicit – and thus clear for us who are removed by time, language, and culture. The semantics layer is composed of three major branches: lexical semantics, phrase-level semantics and verbal semantics. (Click 'Expand' to the right for more information.)

About Lexical Semantics[ ]

One major branch of semantic study is lexical semantics, which refers to the study of word meanings. It examines semantic range (=possible meanings of a word), the relationship between words (e.g. synonymy, hyponymy), as well as the relationship between words and larger concepts (conceptual domains). One component of our approach involves not only the study of the Hebrew word meaning, but also of our own assumptions about word meaning in modern languages. Because the researcher necessarily starts with their own cultural assumptions (in our case, those of Western-trained scholars), this part of the analysis should be done afresh for every culture.

For a detailed description of our method, see the Lexical Semantics Creator Guidelines.

About Phrase-level Semantics[ ]

The Phrase-level Semantics layer analyses the meaning of syntactic units which are larger than the level of the word and smaller than the level of the clause. Specifically, this layer analyses the meaning of prepositional phrases (e.g., לְאִישׁ), construct phrases (e.g., אִישׁ אֱלֹהִים), phrases formed by a coordinating waw conjunction (e.g., אִישׁ וְאִשָּׁה) and noun phrases which consist of a noun plus a determiner (e.g., הָאִישׁ) or a quantifier (e.g., כֹּל אִישׁ).

For a detailed description of our method, see the Phrase-level Semantics Creator Guidelines.

About Verbal Semantics[ ]

This sub-layer focuses on the relationship between verbs, time and modality. These are important categories for interpretation and translation, and how one analyses a verb can have a significant effect on how it is rendered. This sub-layer has been through several iterations, as it strives to accomplish two things: (1) Transparency for the native Hebrew structures, and (2) Transparency for the interpretation necessary to translate the verbal semantics into other languages.

For a detailed description of our method, see the Verbal Semantics Creator Guidelines.

Semantics Visuals for Psalm 36[ ]

Lexical and Phrase-level Semantics Diagram[ ]

For legend, click "Expand" to the right

	Prepositional phrase	Construct chain	Construct chain within a prepositional phrase	Phrase-level waw	Article and כֹּל
Diagram Shading
Definition	- A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition plus its object. The phrase usually modifies the clause or another constituent in the clause.	- A construct chain, also called a 'genitive phrase', is a grammatical encoding of the relationship 'A of B,' in which A is a phonologically modified noun (in the construct state), and B is a phonologically unmodified noun (the absolute state).	- Some construct chains occur within prepositional phrases	- A waw conjunction can join units of all sizes. Phrase level waw join units at the word or phrase level (i.e., below the level of the clause).	- Definite articles tell you something about the identifiability or inclusiveness about the word it is attached to - כֹּל is a quantifier that tells you about the scope of a word it is attached to

See our growing collection of Venn Diagrams, not only for Psalm 36, but for all of the psalms.
See SDBH on Psalm 36.

v. 1[ ]

It is plausible that the music director (למנצח) represents the only one of his kind, qualifying him as a unique referent. For a fuller treatment, see Lamnaṣṣēaḥ.
This same instance of apposition (לְעֶבֶד יְהוָה לְדָוִד) occurs in Ps 18:1. The identification of David as YHWH's servant clusters in 2 Samuel 7 (e.g., 2 Sam 7:5, 8, 19, 20, 21, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 (x2)). Perhaps Pss 18 and 36 recall the context of 2 Sam 7.
The word עֶבֶד generally refers to a “man who is under the authority of someone else as that person’s legal property, employee, subject, or vassal;” (SDBH). By the same token, with specific reference to a king of Israel, the title sometimes foregrounds the responsibility of a king to deliver Israel from enemies (e.g., 2 Sam 3:18 בְּיַ֣ד ׀ דָּוִ֣ד עַבְדִּ֗י הוֹשִׁ֜יעַ אֶת־עַמִּ֤י יִשְׂרָאֵל֙ ESV “By the hand of my servant David I will save my people Israel”; cf. Psa 144:10 הַנּוֹתֵ֥ן תְּשׁוּעָ֗ה לַמְּלָ֫כִ֥ים “who gives deliverance to kings”). With David, however, the term acquires a new strong connotation that foregrounds “election and the perpetual continuation of the dynasty” (TDOT 10:39). God’s promise to David (2 Sam 7:8ff) afforded עֶבֶד “servant” the status of a “sign of promise” (TDNT5:644) such that figures that embody Israel’s messianic hope are called “servants” (see e.g., Ezek 34:23ff; 37:24ff; Zech 3:8; Hag 2:23).
For discussion on לְדָוִד, see Ledavid.

v. 2[ ]

Certain ancient versions render the construct/noun phrase נְאֻם־פֶּשַׁע verbally, perhaps understanding the relatioship of the construct phrase as verbal notion-subject: LXX - Φησὶν "Says" (NETS); Syr. - ܡܬܚܫܒ "devises" (Taylor); Vulg. - dixit "say."
SDBH glosses נְאֻם as "declaration, utterance" and defines it as an "action by which humans or deities make a prophetic statement; in the case of a deity this is usually done through the mouth of a prophet or seer." It appears once as a verb in Jer 23:31 (qal - וַיִּנְאֲמוּ) and in all 376 of its occurrences as a noun, it is the first term of a construct phrase, most often נְאֻם־יְהוָה (cf. Gen 22:16; Num 14:28; Isa 14:22; Jer 1:8). נְאֻם is "an almost completely fixed technical expression introducing prophetic oracles" (HALOT). Its connection in Ps 36:2 with פֶּשַׁע is unique in that this is the only instance in which נְאֻם is not followed by a proper noun or substantive participle (e.g., Gen 22:16 - יְהוָה; Num 24:3 - בִּלְעָם; Num 24:4 - שֹׁמֵ֖עַ). See The Text, Grammar, and Meaning of Ps. 36:2a.

The gloss "declaration" has legal associations. It can refer to the document on which a declaration is written as well as a "statement made by a party to a legal transaction" (Merriam-Webster). These denotations are not shared by נְאֻם. The Hebrew term occurs most often in prophetic books/contexts, and most of its occurrences indicate YHWH's oral speech. The prophetic connotations of נְאֻם are not shared by "declaration." What is shared by both terms is their reference to speech, whether that be oral or written; both pertain to the communication of a message.

The term פֶּשַׁע most often denotes "a breach of relationships, civil or religious, between two parties" (TWOT 1999, 741).
Because a class or species is, by its very nature, unique, לָרָשָׁע is therefore determinate (JM §137i). Here, the focus is not all wicked people; rather, the wicked person "is singled out to represent the genus [i.e., wicked people]" (IBHS §13.5.1f). The LXX renders this phrase as an infinitive construct, perhaps reflecting the vocalization לִרְשֹׁעַ): τοῦ ἁμαρτάνειν "in order to sin" (NETS). The Syr. renders it as the direct object of a verbal clause: ܡܬܚܫܒ ܥܘܠܐ ܪܘܫܥܐ ܒܠܒܗ "The ungodly man devises wickedness in his heart" (Taylor 2020, 133). In favor of reading לָרָשָׁע as a prepositional phrase indicating the indirect object ("to the wicked person") is the similar construction of Ps 110:1 - נְאֻם יְהוָה לַאדֹנִי "The LORD says to my Lord" (ESV). For a fuller treatment of the various options for understanding לָרָשָׁע, see The Text, Grammar, and Meaning of Ps. 36:2a.
In the Psalter, the wicked (רָשָׁע) are characterized as those who oppress the poor (Ps 10:2), conspire against the righteous (Ps 37:12), and forsake God's instruction (Ps 119:53). The wicked and the righteous are frequently contrasted (cf. Pss 1:6; 11:5; TWOT 1999, 864).
Here לֵב is conceived of as a container, a blend of three conceptual metaphors: heart is an internal organ, heart is a container, and heart is locus of thought. "Heart" represents "a place where it could not be seen or heard" (see Van der Merwe 2023, 312-314).
פַּחַד seems to be a "strong, poetic synonym" for יָרֵא (TWOT 1999, 720). Both are used in similar construct phrases (e.g., Ps 36:2 - פַּחַד אֱלֹהִים; Ps 19:10 - יִרְאַת יְהוָה) and in parallel poetic lines (e.g., Ps 119:120). In Ps 36:2, the psalmist states that the wicked person lacks "fear of God." It seems here that "fear," specifically the "fear of God," is good to possess, and it seems that the wicked person sins because he does not fear God. In other words, he has rejected "the revealed way and method in which one has to fear God" (Delitzsch 1883, 354).

It is difficult to determine whether "fear" here indicates the external emotion of the wicked person towards God (verbal notion-object) or the fear that God possesses, which emanates from him and causes the wicked person to fear (entity-source) (see TWOT, 721). In this case, the latter is preferred in which "fear" is what God evokes. Seen as a precept, the "fear of YHWH" (יראת יהוה) is "the revealed way and method in which one has to fear God" (Delitzsch 1883, 354).

The complex preposition לְנֶגֶד is a combination of two prepositions, לְ and נֶגֶד. Whereas the simple preposition נֶגֶד involves only the landmark (i.e., the "relatively stationary entity with respect to which the position of the less stationary TRAJECTOR is profiled"; BHRG, 532), the complex prep. לְנֶגֶד involves both the landmark and trajector (in this case, both פַּ֥חַד אֱ֝לֹהִ֗ים and עֵינָֽיו), in that, while נֶגֶד only construes the frontal position of the trajector in relation to the landmark, לְנֶגֶד specifies the orientation of the landmark ('his eyes') as facing the trajector ('fear of God') and therefore attentive to its presence. This is comparable to the difference between the English prepositional phrases "in front of" (לְנֶגֶד), which activates both the entity that is in front and what "frontness" is measured by, and "before" (נֶגֶד), which activates only the thing by which "frontness" is measured (see Hardy II 2022, 96; Tyler and Evans 2003, 156-169). Such a distinction is only made explicit by the לְ, however, but is not necessary in the unmarked cases of נֶגֶד, in which the same construal can be supposed; see, e.g., וְחַטָּאתִ֖י נֶגְדִּ֣י תָמִֽיד in Ps 51:5, which may provide the same construal as here, or may indicate that the psalmist's sin was simply "in the back of his mind", i.e., evident, but not under current (mental) consideration.
In this instance, נֶגֶד likely indicates "frontal opposition" in the "mental" sphere (BHRG §39.16.1.b). The wicked person does not keep the 'fear which God evokes/fear which emanates from God' in view (i.e., "before his eyes") that he might keep his commands (see the construct chain table for the analysis of פַּ֥חַד אֱ֝לֹהִ֗ים as entity-source).

v. 3[ ]

In its non-figurative sense, the hiphil of חלק is used to describe someone who "smooths" something out with a hammer (Isa 41:7). Its figurative sense denotes a "causative action by which humans cause events to appear well-intentioned, though actually being insincere" (SDBH). In other words, it "points to deceptive practices" and is paired with negative terms such as a "double-heart" (Ps 12:3) and "iniquity" (Ps 36:3) (NIDOTTE).
If indicating the goal of movement, אֵלָיו could be rendered "to him(self)." That אֵלָיו indicates movement is unlikely due to the fact that the governing verb (הֶחֱלִיק "flatters") does not express movement. It is more likely that the prepositional phrase indicates the goal of an emotional process. In the absence of a reflexive form (niphal or hithpael) for חלק, the reflexive pronoun is indicated by the third-person suffix (le Mat 1957, 12). So, in this case the waw suffix affixed to אל signals reflexivity; the wicked person flatters "himself." It should be noted that reflexive prepositional phrases are typically indicated by a לְ prep., so the use of אֶל here is quite rare (cf. Gen 8:9).
It is unlikely that the בְּ preposition here indicates a "metaphoric extension of localization of a space," for in this instance "eyes" are not a container in which an entity is/is not located. Instead, the entire prep. phrase is "a metonymically extended fixed expression for 'in x’s opinion'" (BHRG §39.6.3.a). The wicked person flatters himself in his opinion.
Determining the function of the לְ preposition here is difficult, for many of its functions (e.g., direction, purpose, indirect object, etc.) do not work in this context. The difficulty lies in identifying the relationship between the finite verb (הֶחֱלִיק) and this prepositional phrase: how does the wicked person's flattery relate to the finding of his iniquity? Regarding the syntax and meaning of Ps. 36:3, Jenni remarks, "The interpretation and classification of this difficult verse can only be done tentatively" (Jenni 2000, 255n149 German: "die Deutung und Einordnung des schwierigen Verses kann nur Versuchsweise geschehen."). The function of this and the below phrase will be treated more fully in The Syntax and Meaning of Ps. 36:3.
The term עָוֹן denotes "a deed of deliberate wrongdoing resulting in a state of guilt which requires punishment" (SDBH). In other words, "sometimes the focus is on the deed ('sin'), and at other times on the outcome of the misdeed ('punishment'), and sometimes on the situation between the deed and its consequence ('guilt')" (TWOT 1999, 650). The idea here is that the wicked person flatters himself to the point that he does not, and perhaps cannot, recognize his "iniquity/sin."

The wicked person's עָוֹן is an action — actual sins he has committed — and not a state (i.e., guilt). Seen this way the relationship of verbal notion-subject fits best. If עָוֹן represents a state — guilt or ongoing sinful nature — the relationship would be that of possession (characteristic)-possessor.

v. 4[ ]

The term אָוֶן denotes "great wickedness and depravity...which is expressed in thoughts, words, and actions" (SDBH). Its usage here indicates that it is expressed through the wicked person's words and is related to מִרְמָה "deceit." These terms can be rendered strictly as nouns, "The words of their mouth are evil and deceit" (emphasis on what they are) or they can be rendered attributively, "The words of their mouth are evil and deceptive" (an emphasis on what they do). Regardless of the rendering, the syntax of the Hebrew (i.e., two substantives as predicates of a noun-clause) indicates that "the attribute[s] [are] intended to receive a certain emphasis" (GKC §141.c, changes are my own). In other words, this construction places focus squarely on "evil" and "deceit" because they "represent[s] something as identical with the subject" (GKC §141.c, changes are my own, italics original).

In English, "evil" is often thought of as a cosmic force, something that exists 'out there' and is engaged in battle with "good," its most common antonym (e.g., good and evil). Though "evil" is a legitimate gloss, the cosmic sense of "evil" in English is not present in אָוֶן. The Hebrew term is closely associated with deception, some of its synonyms being שֶׁקֶר "deceit" and שָׁוְא "falsehood." What is common to both "evil" and אָוֶן is captured by the definition of אָוֶן in SDBH: great wickedness and depravity...expressed in thoughts, words, and actions." For both the Hebrew term and the gloss, intentional actions are involved as opposed to accidental sins. Additionally, both "evil" and אָוֶן produce negative results (Merriam-Webster).

The waw on וּמִרְמָה creates a compound object: the wicked person's words are evil and deceit(ful) (see BHRG §40.23.3.1f). The CEV combines the nouns into a single phrase, "deceitful lies."
The lexica and modern translations are divided as to the understanding of שׂכל (hiphil). Some understand it to denote acting wisely (BDB; so ESV, NIV, NLT) and others to denote being wise or having wisdom (HALOT; DCH; so NKJV, NASB95). The formers highlights the action of acting wisely, whereas the latter highlights the quality/state of being wise. The former pairs better with the second infinitive construct (לְהֵיטִיב), which clearly pertains to the action of "doing good" (DCH; HALOT; BDB). This pairing results in the translation: "He has stopped acting wisely and doing good."
In the phrase לְהַשְׂכִּיל, the לְ preposition, prefixed to an infinitive construct, indicates the complement of the finite verb: he ceases to have understanding (see BHRG §20.1.3.2).
In the phrase לְהֵיטִיב, the לְ preposition, prefixed to an infinitive construct, indicates the complement of the finite verb: he ceases to do good (see BHRG §20.1.3.2).

v. 5[ ]

The wicked person "plots evil on his bed" at night in order to carry it out during the day (cf. Mic 2:1). On this usages of עַל in this verse, see BHRG §39.20.1.a.
In its non-figurative sense, יִתְיַצֵּב denotes the physical act of "taking position." This physical act was extended figuratively into the mental sphere as "committing" (cf. SDBH). The wicked person does not physically stand on a road, rather he commits himself to a way — a way of conduct — that is not good.
In its non-figurative sense, דֶּרֶךְ signifies a "road"; in its figurative sense, it signifies a "pattern of behavior, with a primary focus on moral and ethical behavior" and can be glossed as "conduct" (SDBH). The idea here is not that the wicked person physically stands on roads but that he associates himself with conduct that is not good.

v. 6[ ]

SDBH defines חֶסֶד as a "state in which humans or deities are committed towards fulfilling their obligations and show that by their actions." Here, חֶסֶד belongs to YHWH and probably indicates his responsibility towards his "covenant partner," David (see SDBH). This interpretation is made more likely per the connotations of the phrase עֶבֶד יהוה “servant of the Lord” mentioned in v.1.
YHWH's אֱמוּנָה indicates that he is "truthful and committed, with an unwavering disposition, which is reflected in [his] actions" (SDBH). אֱמוּנָה is one of YHWH's attributes (cf. Ps 40:11; Lam 3:23) and in Ps 89:50 it is the means by which YHWH swears to David and is the guarantee of his intention to make good on his promise. Seen as an attribute of YHWH, אֱמוּנָה is best glossed as "faithfulness" (SDBH).
That the spatial sense of the prep. עַד (unto) is activated is evident by the object — שְׁחָקִים "clouds" (see BHRG §39.19.1). YHWH's faithfulness reaches "unto the clouds."
It's not uncommon to find שְׁחָקִים in parallel with שָּׁמַיִם (cf. Jer 51:9; Ps 57:11; 78:23; 108:5; Job 35:5; 38:37). Here, the parallelism assists in determining the sense of שְׁחָקִים as "clouds" in the sky as opposed to "clouds of dust" (cf. Isa 40:15; see HALOT). A comparison is made between the "heavens/sky" and the "clouds" which are in the sky.

v. 7[ ]

The context suggests understanding צְדָקָה as having a legal connotation, for the more obviously legal term, מִשְׁפָּט, occurs in the next clause. YHWH's "justice" refers to his "fairly deciding what is right in a legal case, without prejudice" (DBLH). Based on the progression of the psalm, the psalmist seems to imply that the expression of YHWH's justice is his deliverance of man and beast (v. 7c).
Regarding the meaning of the phrase כְּהַרְרֵי־אֵל, "some nouns such as אֵל and אֱלהִים in the genitive case can serve as intensifiers" (JM §141n; cf. IBHS §14.5b). The Targum seems to support this notion: טורייא תקיפיא "mighty mountains" (Stec 2004, 78).
In what way is YHWH's מִשְׁפָּט like תְּהוֹם רַבָּה? The comparison with the "great deep" probably communicates the "immenseness" of YHWH's "justice" (Craigie 2004, 292). Perhaps the contours of YHWH's immense "righteousness" and "justice" are offered in vv. 7c and 8b where humans, livestock and, if one adopts the alternative reading, gods and the children of men are beneficiaries of them. These groups indicate just how immense is YHWH's righteousness and justice. YHWH's מִשְׁפָּט likely has positive and negative connotations. Positively, his מִשְׁפָּט leads to "salvation and deliverance for the innocent and oppressed" (TDOT IX, 91). Negatively, it results in punishment for the wicked. Once the wicked are punished, the righteous can enjoy deliverance (see TDOT IX, 91).
SDBH defines תְּהוֹם as a "great body of water located around and under the surface of the earth." In v. 7, תְּהוֹם occurs in the B line of two parallel lines and should be understood in light of its corresponding/contrasting term in the A line, הַרְרֵי "mountains." The parallelism suggests comparing/contrasting הַרְרֵי "mountains" in the A line with תְּהוֹם "ocean" in the B line. In the A line, YHWH's righteousness is likened to the grandest of mountains — הַרְרֵי־אֵל "mountains of God >> highest mountains" (see IBHS 14.5b); in the B line, YHWH's justice is likened to the grandest of water-bodies — תְּהוֹם רַבָּה "great deep/ocean." The greatest of mountains (הַרְרֵי־אֵל) is juxtaposed with the greatest of waterbodies (תְּהוֹם רַבָּה).
The phrase אָ֤דָֽם־וּבְהֵמָ֖ה forms a fixed compound, but the words are not synonymous, similar to טב ורע (see BHRG §40.23.3.1f).

v. 8[ ]

See note on חֶסֶד in v. 6. Here again, the psalmist indicates that via YHWH's חֶסֶד, he and YHWH are "covenant partners" (SDBH). Perhaps YHWH's deliverance (ישׁע) of man and beast (v. 7) is what prompts the psalmist to praise YHWH's חֶסֶד; if this is the case, YHWH's deliverance can be seen as a demonstration of his loyalty (חֶסֶד).
A similar phrase to אֱלֹ֫הִ֥ים וּבְנֵ֥י אָדָ֑ם, אֱלֹהִים וַאֲנָשִׁים "gods and men," occurs in Judg 9:9, 13.

vv. 9-10[ ]

Although רָוָה in the qal stem is can be rendered as a stative verb ("they are sated"; so NET), the dynamic/action sense ("they drink their fill"; so ESV, NIV) makes the best sense in context. The idea is that gods and men drink as much as they want from the never-ending abundance of YHWH's house.
The English gloss for the 'מִן preposition depends on whether the qal verb (יִרְוְיֻן) is understood as stative ("they are sated") or active ("they drink their fill"). The former results in the instrumental sense of the prep.: "They are sated by the fatness of your house." The latter results in the source sense of the prep.: "They drink their fill from the fatness of your house." Because the active sense of the verb makes the best sense in context, the source sense is preferred (i.e., they drink from...).
The sense of דֶּשֶׁן can be inferred from the governing verb, יִרְוְיֻן "they drink their fill." Drinking one's fill implies that there is much to drink, that there is "abundance." That דֶּשֶׁן can denote abundance is based on the idea that, "as particularly nourishing food, dšn is connected with the idea of satisfaction, of being pleased, of abundance" (TDOT).
The term עֵדֶן occurs only 3x in the Hebrew Bible (2 Sam 1:24; Jer 51:34; Ps 36:9) and is homophonous with the place name "Eden" (DCH; cf. Gen 2:15).
עֵדֶן "delights" could be a concrete object or a characteristic (delightful things). Here it is best to understand "delights" as a concrete object — something which God gives to mankind — rather than a characteristic of God — that God is delightful.
The phrase עִמְּךָ indicates that the "spring of life" is God's possession (see BHRG §39.21.1.b).
It is possible for plurals "to designate things which, while having a real unity, also express plurality in some way" (JM §136a). The plural חַיִּים is best explained as a plural of extension (i.e., the extent of one's life; JM §136c) or a plural of state (e.g., old age, adolescence; JM §136h).
Though the instrumental sense of the בְּ preposition is opted for here (so CSB, NLT), it is possible to understand it as indicating location — "in your light" (so ESV, NIV).
In the phrase בְּאוֹרְךָ, the non-figurative sense of "light" here results in a characteristic-possessor relationship. "Light" is "associated with life, goodness, happiness, prosperity, security, favor, and wisdom, loved by the righteous, and hated by the wicked" (SDBH).

v. 11[ ]

Constructions such as 'משׁך plus two objects' (Jer 31:3) or 'משׁך plus object, dative' (Ps 109:12) occur infrequently in the HB. In the final phrase of Jer 31:3 (מְשַׁכְתִּיךְ חָסֶד), the object of משׁך "continued" is both חסד "faithfulness" and ך "you." In Ps 109:12 (אַל־יְהִי־לֹו מֹשֵׁךְ חָסֶד), the object of משׁך is also חסד. In addition to the object, Ps 109:12 includes the benefactor of חסד, marked by a ל prep. — "to him."
Here, "knowing" (ידע) God is not simply cognitive; it denotes more than knowing facts/information about God. Instead, it "refers to a practical, religio-ethical relationship" (TDOT). People who "know" YHWH relationally trust in him (cf. Ps 9:11) and experience his deliverance and protection (cf. Ps 91:14).
For חֶסֶד, see note on v. 6.
Here צְדָקָה is beneficial, even necessary, for YHWH's people, for the psalmist asks for it to be continued on their behalf. It seems to denote YHWH's act of saving/vindicating his people, a salvation that is "expressed with judgment" (TWOT). The continuing of YHWH's "righteousness" refers to the continuation of YHWH's deliverance of his people through the judgment of their enemies.

v. 12[ ]

For רְשָׁעִים, see note on v. 2.

v. 13[ ]

Commentators have noted that שָׁם ("there") seems "remarkable in the context" (Kraus 1988, 397). As an alternative, they suggest that שָׁם be read as a verb — שָׁמְמוּ (they are destroyed) — in order to maintain (or establish) parallelism with the following verb, נָפְלוּ (they fall) (Kraus 1988, 397). Yet other commentators do not see שָׁם as an oddity; they see it is a reference to the temple (cf. Ps 69:36) and perfectly at home in the context of a plea for judgment (cf. Pss 14:4-5; 53:5-6) (NICOT 2014). Perhaps it could also be a reference to the last specified locale of the wicked person — "every way that is not good" (v. 5). The psalmist expresses confidence that those who stand on wicked paths will perish there (cf. Botha 2004, 516n30). The ancient versions agree with MT and support reading שָׁם: LXX - ἐκεῖ (there); Syr. - ܕܬܡܢ (there); TgPs. - תמן (there); Vulg. - ibi (there). The testimony of the ancient versions, in addition to the occurrence of שָׁם in similar contexts elsewhere in the Psalter, suggests that it is best to retain MT's שָׁם (ESV - There [at the temple] the evildoers lie fallen). Because an obvious locational referent is lacking in the context, another option is to understand שָׁם as a mirative particle (e.g., "look!, behold!"; DCH; see Macrosyntax note in Psalm 36 Discourse).
The phrase פֹּעֲלֵי אָוֶן occurs elsewhere in the Psalter (Pss 94:4, 16; 125:5, etc.) and frequently depicts "those who want to harm a Yahweh worshiper by misusing their power, esp. by slander, cursing, false accusations, and other sins of the tongue" (NIDOTTE).
This is the only occurrence of דחה in the pual stem and denotes "push, thrust" (SDBH). Here, דחה is in parallel to נפל: the evildoers "fall," that is, they are "thrust down" and unable to rise. The switch from active (נפל) to passive (דחה) could signal a progression/intensification of the evildoers' fate (though not necessarily temporal progression): they have fallen, perhaps on their own, and then they are said to be thrust down, presumably by YHWH.

Verbal Semantics Chart[ ]

For legend, click "Expand" to the right

	Tense	Aspect	Reference point movement	Modality
Definition	A situation's location in time	Internal temporal constituency of a situation as portrayed	Whether or not the expected reference point in the discourse is updated after the situation.	Distinguishing between indicative, volitional and other forms of modality, as determined by morphology; word order; particles; context
Options	Relative: a situation's location in time relative to a reference point Absolute: a situation's location in time relative to the moment of speech	Continuous Habitual/iterative Stative	Expected movement: usually perfective No expected movement: usually imperfective	indicative jussive imperative cohortative wish purpose/result past (conditional) possible probable interrogative
Symbol

For steps to determine relative tense and reference point movement click "Expand" to the right:

				Do we expect reference point to move?
After reference point (Posterior)
	Imperative	What next?	Posterior (relative future)	Yes	⇐
	Yiqtol	What next? What now?	Posterior (relative future Simultaneous (relative imperfective present)	Yes	⇐
	Weqatal			Yes	⇐
	Weyiqtol			No	⇍
	Wayyiqtol			No	⇍
At reference point (Simultaneous)
	Yiqtol	What now?	Simultaneous (relative imperfective present)	No	⇍
	Participle
	Weyiqtol
	Infinitive
Before reference point (Anterior)
	Qatal	What next? What now?	Anterior (relative past) Simultaneous (relative imperfect present)	Yes	⇐
	Wayyiqtol	What next? What now?		No	⇍

v. 2 - For the emendation לִבּוֹ, see grammar note and The Text, Grammar, and Meaning of Ps. 36:2a (MT: לִבִּי).
'v. 3 - For a fuller treatment of this verse's difficult syntax, see The Syntax and Meaning of Ps. 36:3.
v. 5 - For the emendation כֹּל, see grammar note (MT: not present).

Bibliography[ ]

Botha, P.J. 2004. “The Textual Strategy and Ideology of Psalm 36.” Old Testament Essays 17 (4): 506–20.

Craigie, Peter C. 2004. Psalms 1–50. 2nd ed. Vol. 19. Word Biblical Commentary. Nashville, TN: Nelson Reference & Electronic.

DeClaissé-Walford, Nancy L., Rolf A. Jacobson, and Beth LaNeel Tanner. 2014. The Book of Psalms. NICOT. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

Delitzsch, Franz. 1871. Biblical Commentary on the Psalms: Vol. 2. Translated by Francis Bolton. Vol. 2. T & T Clark.

Gerstenberger, Erhard. 1988. Psalms, Part 1: With an Introduction to Cultic Poetry. FOTL 14. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Hardy, H. H. 2022. The Development of Biblical Hebrew Prepositions. Ancient Near East Monographs, number 28. Atlanta, GA: SBL Press.

Jenni, Ernst. 2000. Die Hebräischen Präpositionen Band 3: Die Präposition Lamed. Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer.

Kraus, Hans-Joachim. 1988. Psalms 1-59: A Commentary. Minneapolis: Augsburg Pub. House.

Miller, Cynthia L. 2003. “A Linguistic Approach to Ellipsis in Biblical Poetry: (Or, What to Do When Exegesis of What Is There Depends on What Isn’t).” Bulletin for Biblical Research 13 (2): 251–70.

O’Connor, Michael Patrick. 1980. Hebrew Verse Structure. Winona Lake, Ind: Eisenbrauns.

Tyler, Andrea and Vyvyan Evans. 2003. The Semantics of English Prepositions: Spatial Scenes, Embodied Meaning, and Cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Van der Merwe, Christo H.J. 2023. “The Conceptualization of Heart as an Active Zone Body Part in Biblical Hebrew.” In Where Is the Way to the Dwelling of Light?: Studies in Genesis, Job and Linguistics in Honor of Ellen van Wolde. BRILL.

Psalm 36 Semantics

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