Psalm 28 Discourse

Psalm Overview

• Grammar
• Semantics
• Story behind the Psalm
• Discourse
• Poetics

About the Discourse Layer

Our Discourse layer includes four analyses: macrosyntax, speech act analysis, emotional analysis, and participant analysis. (For more information, click 'Expand' to the right.)

Macrosyntax

The macrosyntax layer rests on the belief that human communicators desire their addressees to receive a coherent picture of their message and will cooperatively provide clues to lead the addressee into a correct understanding. So, in the case of macrosyntax of the Psalms, the psalmist has explicitly left syntactic clues for the reader regarding the discourse structure of the entire psalm. Here we aim to account for the function of these elements, including the identification of conjunctions which either coordinate or subordinate entire clauses (as the analysis of coordinated individual phrases is carried out at the phrase-level semantics layer), vocatives, other discourse markers, direct speech, and clausal word order.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Macrosyntax Creator Guidelines.

Speech Act Analysis

The Speech Act layer presents the text in terms of what it does, following the findings of Speech Act Theory. It builds on the recognition that there is more to communication than the exchange of propositions. Speech act analysis is particularly important when communicating cross-culturally, and lack of understanding can lead to serious misunderstandings, since the ways languages and cultures perform speech acts varies widely.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Speech Act Analysis Creator Guidelines.

Emotional Analysis

This layer explores the emotional dimension of the biblical text and seeks to uncover the clues within the text itself that are part of the communicative intent of its author. The goal of this analysis is to chart the basic emotional tone and/or progression of the psalm.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Emotional Analysis Creator Guidelines.

Participant Analysis

Participant Analysis focuses on the characters in the psalm and asks, “Who are the main participants (or characters) in this psalm, and what are they saying or doing? It is often helpful for understanding literary structure, speaker identification, etc.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Participant Analysis Creator Guidelines.

Discourse Visuals for Psalm 28

Macrosyntax

Notes

• v. 8a. ** for emendation see exegetical issue The Text of Ps. 28:8a (MT: לָ֑מוֹ).

Paragraph Divisions

• vv. 1-2. The paragraph starts with אֵ֘לֶ֤יךָ ("to you") as a marked focus followed by the vocative יְהוָ֨ה (YHWH), and it concludes with ב + infinitive verbs (cf. vv. 2c and 2d). This paragraph is characterized by the presence of subordinating elements (פֶּן and ב + infinitive verbs) and vocatives (this is the only section of the psalm with vocatives). This paragraph begins with two vocatives and ends with two subordinating elements. This symmetry may serve to create a structural unit for the first paragraph.
• vv. 3-5. The new paragraph is indicated by the shift from ב + infinitive verbs to the negation yiqtol (אַל־תִּמְשְׁכֵ֣נִי - "do not drag me"), which functions as an imperative. The preposed causal כִּי (i.e., cataphoric כִּ֤י) joins v. 5 with vv. 3-4, creating topic continuity throughout this paragraph. Hence, in Psalm 28:5 there is no surprise that the psalmist's enemies disregard YHWH's works. The content of the preposed כִּי clause (the enemies do not regard the deeds of YHWH and the work of his hands) is inferable from vv. 3-4 (the enemies' deeds, works, and practices are evil). Yet, the causal relationship with its result (YHWH will tear them down and not build them up) is newly asserted (Dancygier and Sweetser 2005, 181-182; Locatell 2017, 96-97).
• vv. 6-9. The exclamatory expression of praise בָּר֥וּךְ (Blessed be YHWH!) indicates the new paragraph (cf. NICOT 2014, 277 for more information on this exclamation). It also "marks the turning point of the poem: the imploring 'Hear the sound of my pleading' (verse 2) is now an accomplished fact" (Alter 2019, 80). The praise is accompanied by the כִּ֤י clause which gives the reasons for the praise. This section draws attention to YHWH, the divine name occurs in vv. 6a, 7a, and 8a. There is also a marked focus (בּוֹ "in him") emphasizing YHWH as the one in whom the psalmist trusted. In v. 9, YHWH is addressed directly as the psalmist prays for the people, who are first mentioned in v. 8a. This paragraph is characterized by a string of seven waws which are interrupted in two key instances: first in v. 8a to refer to YHWH as the people's strength, and second in v. 9a to ask YHWH to save his people.

Word Order

• v. 1a. The prepositional phrase אֵ֘לֶ֤יךָ is fronted for focus. This focus has a restrictive sense (Khan and Van der Merwe 2020, 366, 388). In other words, "It is to YHWH (and no one else) that I cry out." The prepositional phrase highlights the psalmist's sole dependence on YHWH for help. Moreover, the position of the vocative יְהוָ֨ה as the second constituent of v. 1 reinforces the fronting of אֵ֘לֶ֤יךָ for marked focus (cf. Miller 2010, 357). This fronting is also reinforced poetically. The word order in vv. 1a and 2b forms a chiasm (prepositional phrase, verb // verb, prepositional phrase): (A) אֵ֘לֶ֤יךָ (To you) (B) אֶקְרָ֗א (I cry out) // (B') בְּשַׁוְּעִ֣י (when I cry for help) (A') אֵלֶ֑יךָ (to you). The information structure of verse 1 is especially attention-grabbing. The marked focus אֵ֘לֶ֤יךָ, the two vocatives יְהוָ֨ה and צוּרִי֮, and the wordplay between תֶּחֱרַ֪שׁ and תֶּֽחֱשֶׁ֥ה (cf. note on poetic structure) highlight the psalmist's desire for God's help.
• v. 4c. The fronting of כְּמַעֲשֵׂ֣ה in v. 4c is most likely the result of poetic structure. V. 4a and v. 4c start and end with תֶּן־לָהֶ֣ם, and the second constituent of v. 4a is structurally similar to the first constituent of v. 4c (verb-prepositional phrase, כְּ-noun // כְּ-noun, verb-prepositional phrase). Therefore, the fronting of כְּמַעֲשֵׂ֣ה (v. 4c) can be explained poetically as structural chiasm.
  • v. 4a: (A) תֶּן־לָהֶ֣ם - Give to them (B) כְּ + פָעֳלָם֮ that which is according to their deeds,
  • v. 4c: (B') כְּ + מַעֲשֵׂ֣ה that which is according to the work of their hands (A') תֶּן־לָהֶ֣ם - Give to them.
• v. 7b. בּוֹ בָטַח לִבִּי - "In him (=YHWH) my heart trusted" - The prepositional phrase בּ֤וֹ is fronted for focus. This focus has a restrictive sense (Khan and Van der Merwe 2020, 366, 388). In other words, "It is in YHWH (and not in myself or in any other) that my heart trusted" >> "In him (and no one else) my heart trusted." About this word order, Goldingay commented that the fronting of בּוֹ is likely placing "emphasis on the question of whom or what one trusts rather than on whether one trusts or doubts" (Goldingay 2006, 408).
• v.7d. The fronting of וּֽמִשִּׁירִ֥י in v. 7d is likely the result of poetic structure. The word order in v. 7cd forms a chiasm (verb belonging to the semantic domain of praise, noun with suffix pronoun // noun with suffix pronoun, verb belonging to the semantic domain of praise):
  • v. 7c: (A) וַיַּעֲלֹ֥ז - exulted (B) לִבִּ֑י - my heart,
  • v. 7d: (B') וּֽמִשִּׁירִ֥י - and with my song (A') אֲהוֹדֶֽנּוּ - I will praise him.

Morphologically, we have a tail-head linkage. The first word of v. 7d (וּֽמִשִּׁירִ֥י - and with my song) is a noun with suffix pronoun just as the last word of v. 7c (לִבִּ֑י my heart).

• v.8b. The fronting of the predicate complement מָ֘עֹ֤וז יְשׁוּע֖וֹת מְשִׁיח֣וֹ (the saving refuge for his anointed) is likely the result of poetic structure. The word order in the b-line is arranged to form a chiasm with the a-line (subject, predicate complement // predicate complement, subject). In addition, the repetition of the root עז reinforces the bond between both lines.
  • v. 8a: (A) הוָ֥ה - YHWH (B) עֹֽז־לְעַמּו
  • v. 8b: (B') הֽוּא - he (A') וּמָ֘עֹ֤וז יְשׁוּע֖וֹת מְשִׁיח֣וֹ - and the saving refuge for his anointed

Vocatives

• v. 1a. The vocative יְהוָ֨ה (YHWH) is the second constituent, which may suggest the preceding entity אֵ֘לֶ֤יךָ ("to you") is focused (see Miller 2010, 357 and 359. Cf. also Ps 91:9a for a similar case. The clause אֵלֶ֣יךָ יְהוָ֣ה אֶקְרָ֑א also occurs in Psalm 30:9).
• v. 1b. The vocative צוּרִי֮ (my rock) is clause-initial (Kim 2023, 133-136) of direct address. This vocative identifies who YHWH is in relation to the psalmist; i.e., the psalmist appeals to YHWH as his protector (=rock). The use of צוּרִי indicates the psalmist "has a history of being secured by the Lord. It also indicates that in previous experiences it was God alone who protected him from his enemies" (Ross 2011, 642). God was the only one who could shelter and protect the psalmist.

Direct speech

• The psalm does not contain direct speech.

Discourse Markers

• v. 5a. There are two main options for interpreting the discourse particle כִּי, translated as since, in v. 5a.
  • Option 1: The כִּי clause may be interpreted as referring back to v. 4d resulting in the following translation: "Pay them their due, for they give no thought to what God does, nor to the work of his hands" (vv. 4d-5ab - Buttenwieser 1969, 828). Verse 5c would then be an independent statement translated as either an expression of confidence ("He will pull them down, not build them up" (Delitzsch 1883, 440) or a prayerful desire ("May he break them down, not build them up" Buttenwieser 1969, 828); "Let him overthrow them and keep them prostrate!" (Terrien 2003, 270). In this rendering, the כִּי clause elaborates the psalmist's request that YHWH would repay the wicked for their dealings. It thus draws attention to the psalmist's own sense of justice. Based on what he has observed from the wicked, the psalmist requests justice from YHWH. For support of this reading of כִּי, you may confer with Perowne 1871, 260; Delitzsch 1883, 440 and 443; Buttenwieser 1969, 828; and Terrien 2003, 270. For modern translations, you may confer with JPS 1985 and REB.
  • Option 2: The כִּי clause provides the reasoning for what is expressed in the following clause (v. 5c). Locatell refers to this use of כִּי as preposed causal כִּי (cf. Locatell 2017, 96, 98. For other examples of this use of כִּי confer Gen 3:14 and Judg 1:15). Hence, the כִּי clause in v. 5a would be connected to v. 5c resulting in the following translation: "Since they do not regard the deeds of YHWH and the work of his hands, he will tear them down and not build them up." As Wilson notes, "they [enemies] disregard the 'works of the LORD' and ignore 'what his hands have done' (lit.,'the deeds of his hands'). As a consequence of their rejection of him, Yahweh will treat them like a conquering king treats a rebellious city: He will 'tear them down' and will 'never build them up again'" (Wilson 2002, 496; cf. Bratcher and Reyburn 1991, 272; Alonso-Schokel 1992, 440; VanGemeren 2008, 289; Phillips 1872, 223; Broyles 1999, 148; etc. For modern translations supporting this option, see BSB, PDV, NFC, NVI, DHH, etc.). Instead of focusing on the psalmist's appraisal of the wicked, this rendering includes an acknowledgement of YHWH's justice and that he will not leave the guilty unpunished (cf. Prov 11:21; 12:7; Ps 62:12).
  • Although both options are plausible, we prefer option 2 along with a majority of scholars. Three main reasons inform our preferred position. First is the shift in person that occurs between vv. 4 and 5. The psalm moves from addressing YHWH in 2nd person (vv. 1-4) to referring to YHWH in 3rd person (v. 5). Second is the shift in modality from v. 4 to v. 5. The psalm moves from imperative verbs (v. 4) to indicative verbs (v. 5). Third is the poetic structure of v. 5a and v. 5c. Verse 5 is bracket by the repetition of the negative particle לֹא (v. 5ac) and the wordplay between יָבִ֡ינוּ (v. 5a) and יִבְנֵֽם (v. 5c). These words connect the enemies' behavior in v. 5ab (disregard for YHWH's deeds and the work of his hands) with its consequence in v. 5c (YHWH will not build them up).

Waw

• Coordinating clauses within a line: v. 5 (וְלֹ֣א); v. 7 (וְנֶעֱזָ֥רְתִּי); v. 9 (וְ֝נַשְּׂאֵ֗ם).
• Coordinating lines within a verse: v. 1 (וְ֝נִמְשַׁ֗לְתִּי); v. 5 (וְאֶל); v. 7 (וַיַּעֲלֹ֥ז and וּֽמִשִּׁירִ֥י); v. 8 (וּמָ֘עֹ֤וז); v. 9 (וּבָרֵ֥ךְ and וּֽרְעֵ֥ם).
• In this psalm, waw never coordinates verses; no verse begins with waw.

Speech Act Analysis

Summary Visual

Speech Act Chart

Notes

Indirect speech acts

• v.6a. Often a direct act of calling people to praise or asserting the praiseworthiness of someone is an indirect act of praise itself. In v. 6, the phrase בָּר֥וּךְ יְהוָ֑ה (Blessed be YHWH!) is a directive (asserting that "YHWH is worthy of praise!") that functions as an act of praise. To bless God is “to declare God to be the source of the special power = to praise God” (HALOT). God has shown himself to be the source of special power for David as he has answered David’s prayer for help. So, David is declaring God to be the source of help during his time of need. However, David’s declaration is also an expression of praise and a testimony of God’s goodness. Furthermore, the formula for blessing YHWH “functions as a way of expressing the admiration and joy of the speaker in the face of a wonderful act of God and to call the attention of others to [his] trustworthiness” (Towner 1968, 388). Therefore, through the formula for blessing, David declares God as the source of blessing. In addition, David expresses his praise, admiration, and joy as he experienced God’s help. Moreover, the people are the addressees of v. 6, so the formula for blessing also offers to the people a “testimony to the goodness of God, especially as that goodness is revealed in the matter at hand” (Towner 1968, 388).

Global speech acts

• In terms of the genre categories of modern form criticism, "Psalm 28 follows the main structural division according to genre: lament (vv.1-5) and thanksgiving (vv.6-9)" (VanGemeren 2008, 287). Yet, the psalm can be divided further into three sections according to global speech acts:
  • The first section (vv. 1-5) is an initial prayer/petition that YHWH would hear the psalmist. The only way the psalmist can avoid becoming like those who go down to the Pit (=like the dead) is if God hears and answers him. The psalmist does not want to be condemned with the wicked, who are evildoers masking their true intentions with friendly speech. They are duplicitous and deserving of judgment. There is an implied sense that the psalmist is not like them and therefore should be judged favorably. YHWH is just to repay the wicked and the righteous their dealings. The psalmist concludes this section with the profession of confidence: "Since the wicked do not regard the deeds of YHWH and the works of his hands, he will tear them down, and he will not build them up" (v. 5). YHWH's judgement is fair, he will judge the psalmist rightly and give the wicked what they deserve (=permanent destruction).
  • In the second section (vv. 6-7), the psalmist praises YHWH for having heard and answered him. In v. 6, the speech-act כִּי not only introduces the reason for the praise, namely, that YHWH answered his supplications, but it also introduces the repeated words שמע קול תחנוני (cf. v. 2), binding the psalmist's plea (vv. 1-5) with YHWH's answer to the plea (vv. 6-9). Psalm 28 is "no longer mere petition, but petition that has been heard. [It is] no longer mere lament, but lament that has been turned to praise" (Westermann 1981, 80).
  • The third section (vv. 8-9) is mainly a prayer of blessing for YHWH's people. This section introduces a corporate concern. As YHWH is the strength of the psalmist (v. 7a), so YHWH is the strength of his people (v. 8a). As YHWH is called the saving refuge of his anointed (v. 8b), so he is petitioned, "save your people" (v. 9). In v. 9, the psalmist returns to addressing YHWH directly (as in vv. 1-4), but instead of praying for himself, the psalmist concludes the psalm with intercession on behalf of YHWH's people.
• In sum, Psalm 28 is a prayer that recounts a petition, the answer to it, and the blessing (=intercessory prayer) that flows out of the entire experience.

Emotional Analysis

Summary visual

Think-Feel-Do Chart

Notes

• Verse 6 marks the major emotional shift in the psalm. The psalmist moved from deep distress/fear to joyful praise. YHWH has heard and answered the psalmist's supplications (v. 2). In the beginning of the psalm, David recognizes that without God's help it would be impossible for him to escape from בֹּור (cistern, pit>>death). Despite David's troublesome circumstances, he trusts YHWH, and YHWH helps him (v.7). In other words, despite David's fear' for his life, he was confident that YHWH would answer him when he cried for help because YHWH is faithful to the covenant he has made with David. The covenant relationship meant David could count on YHWH to answer.
• The following table presents David’s feelings toward the different participants of Ps 28:

Participant analysis

There are 4 participants/characters in Psalm 28:

• David (the psalmist). Psalm 28 is traditionally attributed to David, and he is named as the author in the superscription. Others have argued that Psalm 28 was written by Jeremiah (Hitzig 1836, 72) or Josiah (Ewald 300, 1880), but these proposals have not gained traction. A number of historical events may have prompted David's lament, e.g., David's flight from Absalom (Delitzsch 1883, 441; Perowne 1871, 259; Lange 1872, 204; Keil and Delitzsch 1900, 362), a time of war (Briggs and Briggs 1906, 245), duplicitous behavior from enemies (Craigie 2004, 237), and even illness or despair (Kidner 1973, 122). The setting of the psalm remains vague which contributes to the psalm's wide-ranging application. What can be known for certain is that the psalmist cried out to God for help, and God heard the sound of his cries.
• "YHWH's anointed": Scholars have debated whether מְשִׁיחוֹ (his [YHWH’s] anointed) refers to a king or to YHWH’s chosen people. We prefer the view of most scholars that the מָשִׁיחַ refers to a king. David, the speaker, is probably referring to himself at this point. See The Identity of the "Anointed" in Ps 28:8b for a detailed discussion.
• YHWH is referred to as the psalmist's rock, strength, shield, saving refuge, and the strength of his people. Throughout, YHWH is depicted as the one in whom the psalmist can take refuge and find protection (cf. Pss 61:2-4; 62: 6-8; 91:2; 144:1-2; etc.).
• The people referred to in the psalm are most likely Israel because they are described as "YHWH's possession" (Deut 4:20, 9: 26, 29; Exod 34:9; cf. also Barnes 1869, 246).
• Although they are not named, the enemies in this psalm are referred to as "wicked people" and "evildoers". They are also described as "those who speak peace with their neighbors but [speak] evil in their hearts." That is, they pretend to care for the well-being of their neighbors, but they secretly wish harm upon them. Thus, the enemies are duplicitous, masking their true intentions with friendly speech. Their fate is to be destroyed by YHWH. All of the above descriptors most likely refer to the same group of people (cf. Berry 1915, 211; Mays 1994, 134; Broyles 1999, 148; VanGemeren 2008, 289; etc.).
• Neighbor (v. 3) is not a participant in this psalm, but it is used to refer to those who have "some level of association" with the psalmist's enemies (SDBH). The association may be geographical, circumstantial, social, or even personal (SDBH).
• In this psalm, the phrase "Those who go down to the Pit" (v. 1) does not represent a participant for it does not function as an agentive subject of a verb. Instead, the phrase represents an outcome which the psalmist wishes to avoid. He recognizes that without God's help he will be unable to escape death. In fact, David employs the same phrase in Ps 30:3 to acknowledge that God has saved him from death: "O Lord, you have brought up my soul from Sheol; you restored me to life from among those who go down to the pit" (Ps 30:3, ESV. See participant analysis of Ps 88 in which the phrase "those who go down to the Pit" is part of the participant set list).

Participant Relations Diagram

The relationships among the participants may be abstracted and summarized as follows:

Participant Analysis Table

Notes

Participant analysis notes related to the speaker(s)

The shift from addressing YHWH directly to referring to him in the third person along with the progression from desperate prayer (vv. 1-4) to confidence (v.5) and praise (v.6) have led scholars to disagree on the speaker for vv. 5-9.

vv.5-9. The psalmist or a priest or temple servant as the speaker(s)? According to Craigie, David is the speaker for vv.1-4 and vv. 6-7, and a priest or temple servant is the speaker for vv. 5, 8-9. On this view, the psalmist presents his prayer to YHWH in vv. 1-4. Then, in v.5, the priest or temple servant declares divine judgment against the psalmist’s enemies. In vv. 6-7, the psalmist offers thanksgiving and praise to YHWH. The priest or temple servant concludes Psalm 28 with a declaration and prayer for YHWH's people (vv.8-9) (Craigie 2004, 237). However, the text itself does not present any indication that an oracle occurred, and this assumption is not necessary to make sense of the psalm; therefore, we have favored the view that the psalmist is the speaker for the whole psalm (cf. Alexander 1864, 131; Delitzsch 1883, 441; Berry 1915, 211; Kidner 1973, 122-124; Futato 2009, 118; Ross 2011, 648; Selderhuis 2015, 221; etc.).

Participant analysis notes related to the addressee(s)

Psalm 28 concludes as it began, with prayer. In vv. 1-4, the psalmist prays for himself, and in v. 9 he prays for the people. Therefore, YHWH is addressed directly in vv. 1-4, 9.

vv.5-8: The people, YHWH, or the psalmist as the addressee(s)? The shift from addressing YHWH directly to referring to him in the third person has led scholars to disagree on the addressee for vv. 5-8.

• The people the addressee for vv. 5-8 is the simplest and our preferred option. After praying to YHWH (vv.1-4), the psalmist addresses The people ( vv. 5-8). Ross explains, "V. 5 is an expression of confidence delivered to the congregation and may fit with the praise section which also addresses the congregation (vv. 6-8)" (Ross 2011, 640; Broyles 1999, 148-149).
• However, some scholars challenge the view that the addressee is the people and propose that the addressee is either a prophet or a priest.
• In contrast to the above position, scholars who see the speaker in vv. 5-9 as a priest or a temple servant propose a change in addressee in vv. 5-8 (Craigie 2004, 237; Jacobson and Tanner 2014, 273). The priest or temple servant hears the psalmist's prayer and receives an oracle of divine judgment on the psalmist's enemies. He then delivers this oracle to The psalmist (v. 5). Next, the psalmist directs thanksgiving and praise to YHWH in vv. 6-7 (YHWH would be spoken of in the third person). Finally, the priest prays to YHWH on behalf of the people (vv.8-9 - YHWH would be spoken of in the third person in v. 8, but he would be addressed directly in v.9). This alternative is based on a liturgical interpretation of the psalm in which an oracle of salvation occurred. Nevertheless, the text of Psalm 28 does not contain evidence of an oracle, nor is one necessary in order to make sense of the psalm. One alternative is that the psalmist was so confident in YHWH's future answer that he wrote with certainty of being heard. Or, what is more likely is that the psalmist recalled God's answer to his prayer and recorded it after the fact.

Participant Distribution Table

The table below illustrates the participant distribution throughout Psalm 28. The number "1" indicates that the participant speaks in first person. The number "2" indicates that the participant is addressed directly. The number "3" indicates that the participant is spoken of in third person.

Bibliography

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