Psalm 28 Poetics

Psalm Overview

• Grammar
• Semantics
• Story behind the Psalm
• Discourse
• Poetics

About the Poetics Layer

Exploring the Psalms as poetry is crucial for understanding and experiencing the psalms and thus for faithfully translating them into another language. This layer is comprised of two main parts: poetic structure and poetic features. (For more information, click 'Expand' to the right.)

Poetic Structure

In poetic structure, we analyse the structure of the psalm beginning at the most basic level of the structure: the line (also known as the “colon” or “hemistich”). Then, based on the perception of patterned similarities (and on the assumption that the whole psalm is structured hierarchically), we argue for the grouping of lines into verses, verses into strophes, strophes into stanzas, etc. Because patterned similarities might be of various kinds (syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, sonic) the analysis of poetic structure draws on all of the previous layers (especially the Discourse layer).

Poetic Features

In poetic features, we identify and describe the “Top 3 Poetic Features” for each Psalm. Poetic features might include intricate patterns (e.g., chiasms), long range correspondences across the psalm, evocative uses of imagery, sound-plays, allusions to other parts of the Bible, and various other features or combinations of features. For each poetic feature, we describe both the formal aspects of the feature and the poetic effect of the feature. We assume that there is no one-to-one correspondence between a feature’s formal aspects and its effect, and that similar forms might have very different effects depending on their contexts. The effect of a poetic feature is best determined (subjectively) by a thoughtful examination of the feature against the background of the psalm’s overall message and purpose.

Poetics Visuals for Psalm 28

Poetic Structure

Poetic Macro-structure

Notes

Psalm 28 consists of two main sections (vv. 1-5 // vv. 6-9). These sections are divided into a few subsections:

First section of Ps 28 (vv. 1-5)

• vv. 1-5 is bound together by the repetition of the consonants אל (6x - vv. 1a, 2b, 2d, 3a, 5a, and 5b) and by the repetition of the noun יָד (vv. 2, 4, and 5).
• vv. 1-2. These verses are bound together by participant analysis (David and YHWH are the participants in this section) and speech act analysis (the global speech act of this section is a petition to be heard by YHWH).
• Similar endings (the occurrence of the letters דביר) also bind vv. 1 and 2.
• The prepositional phrase אֵלֶיךָ occurs only in this section (vv. 1a-2b).
• vv. 1 and 2 present an ABCB'A' pattern:

(A) - I cry - אֵ֘לֶ֤יךָ אֶקְרָ֗א

(B) - Do not be deaf (=hear) - אַֽל־תֶּחֱרַ֪שׁ

(C) - Otherwise, I will die - וְ֝נִמְשַׁ֗לְתִּי עִם־י֥וֹרְדֵי בֽוֹר

(B') - Hear - שְׁמַ֤ע

(A') - When I cry - בְּשַׁוְּעִ֣י אֵלֶ֑יךָ

• vv. 1 and 2 are also bound together by the proliferation of words that convey opposite meanings:
  • v. 1b אַֽל־תֶּחֱרַ֪שׁ (do not be deaf) and v. 2a שְׁמַ֤ע (hear)
  • v. 1c תֶּֽחֱשֶׁ֥ה (be silent) and v. 1a אֶקְרָ֗א (I cry out), 2a ק֣וֹל (sound, voice), and 2b בְּשַׁוְּעִ֣י (when I cry for help).
  • v. 1d י֥וֹרְדֵי (those who go down) and v. 2c בְּנָשְׂאִ֥י (when I lift up)
• The words תֶּחֱרַ֪שׁ (v. 1b - do not be deaf) and תֶּֽחֱשֶׁ֥ה (v. 1c - be silent) forms a pun (cf. Alter 2009, 95). Perhaps the psalmist’s intense desire for God’s attention is demonstrated by the use of the wordplay (תֶּחֱרַ֪שׁ and תֶּֽחֱשֶׁ֥ה). Alter explains how the pun conveys the psalmist's concern: "should God turn a deaf ear to the supplicant, He will not answer the supplicant's prayer and hence will be 'mute'" (Alter 2009, 95).
• vv. 3-5. Three items bind vv. 3-5. First is the repetition of the root פעל. Second is the prevalence of the letter mem which is often the rhyming consonant in Psalm 28 (see Fokkelman 2000, 120 footnote 85). Third is the reference to the enemies which occurs only in these verses. Each verse of this section has its own unique way of referring to the enemies:

• v. 3. The repetition of עִם, the use of רָעָ֗ה (evil) as the antithesis of שָׁ֭לוֹם (peace), and the Hebrew pun between רֵֽעֵיהֶ֑ם and רָעָ֗ה (cf. Alter 2009, 80):

אַל־תִּמְשְׁכֵ֣נִי עִם־רְשָׁעִים֮ | Do not drag me away with wicked people,

וְעִם־פֹּ֪עֲלֵ֫י אָ֥וֶן | with evildoers,

דֹּבְרֵ֣י שָׁ֭לוֹם עִם־רֵֽעֵיהֶ֑ם | those who speak peace with their neighbors

וְ֝רָעָ֗ה בִּלְבָבָֽם׃ | but [speak] evil in their hearts.

• Concerning v. 4, Fokkelman mentioned the phonetic chain of גְּ - כְּ - כְ - כְּ, the synonymous parallelism of lines 4b and 4c with the repetition of יהֶ֥ם, and the chiastic structures mentioned below (Fokkelman 2000, 120).

v. 4a and 4d: (A) לָהֶ֣ם (B) לָם, (B') לָם (A') לָהֶ֑ם.

v. 4a and 4c: (A) תֶּן־לָהֶ֣ם (B) כְּ + פָעֳלָם֮, (B') כְּ + מַעֲשֵׂ֣ה (A') תֶּן לָהֶ֑ם.

• v. 5. This verse is bracket by the repetition of the negative particle לֹ֤א and the wordplay between יָבִ֡ינוּ and יִבְנֵֽם. These words link together the enemies' behavior (disregard for YHWH's deeds and the work of his hands) with its consequence (YHWH will not build them up):

כִּ֤י לֹ֤א יָבִ֡ינוּ אֶל־פְּעֻלֹּ֣ת יְ֭הוָה | Because they do not regard the deeds of YHWH

וְאֶל־מַעֲשֵׂ֣ה יָדָ֑יו | and the work of his hands,

יֶ֝הֶרְסֵ֗ם וְלֹ֣א יִבְנֵֽם׃ | he will tear them down, and he will not build them up.

• The repetition of the following terms binds together different verses in this section of the psalm:

• Repetition of the letters ד,י,ב,ר (vv. 1d, 2d, and 3c)
• Repetition of מַעֲשֵׂ֣ה (vv. 4c and 5b)

Second section of Ps 28 (vv. 6-9)

• The repetition of the root ברך in vv. 6 and 9 forms an inclusio which binds this section together.
• vv. 6-7. The occurrence of the first person language (my supplications . . . my strength . . . my shield . . . I was helped . . . my heart . . . my song . . . I will praise) binds this section together. These verses are also linked by participant analysis (David and YHWH are the participants in this section) as well as speech act analysis (the global speech act of this section is praise).
• v. 8a. ** for emendation see exegetical issue The Text of Ps. 28:8a (MT: לָ֑מוֹ).
• vv. 8-9. These verses are connected by the repetition of the root ישׁע in יְשׁוּע֖וֹת, הוֹשִׁ֥יעַ. These verses are also connected by participant analysis (David, YHWH, and YHWH's people are the participants in this section) as well as speech act analysis (the global speech act of this section is prayer for YHWH's people). The mention of YHWH's people occurs only in this section of the psalm. Interestingly, v. 9 ends with an alliteration of the letter mem which tends to be used in this verse to refer to YHWH's people rather than the enemies (cf. vv. 3-5).
• Both sections (vv. 6-7 and vv. 8-9) are connected by:

• Similar content: Praise and thanksgiving (vv. 6-8)
• Similar beginnings: Each section begin with a similar structure (bicola - vv. 6 and 8)
• Repetition of יְהוָה and the root עז (vv. 7a, 8a and 8b)
• Similar contextual domain of security: v. 7a מָגִנִּי (my shield), v. 7b בָטַח (trust), v. 8b וּמָ֘עֹ֤וז (refuge), יְשׁוּע֖וֹת (saving), v. 9a הוֹשִׁ֥יעַ (save), etc.

Both sections of Ps 28 (vv. 1-5 // vv. 6-9)

The two main sections (vv. 1-5 // vv. 6-9) are bound together as a unit by a thematic inclusion; i.e., the psalm begins and ends with prayer. Moreover, the repetition of the following terms forms a seam binding together different sections of the psalm:

• Repetition of the divine name occurs in every section of the psalm (vv. 1-2; 3-5; 6-7; and 8-9).
• Similar beginnings: The repeated words occur at or near the beginning of each of the two major sections. The words שמע קול תחנוני link the psalmist's plea (first half of the psalm) with YHWH's answer to the plea (second half of the psalm).
• Repetition of the root נשׂא in v. 2c (בְּנָשְׂאִ֥י) and v. 9c (וְ֝נַשְּׂאֵ֗ם).
• Repetition of the word heart(בִּלְבָבָֽם in v. 3d; and לִבִּ֑י in v. 7bc). The psalmist uses לב exclusively to refer to his own heart and opts to use לבב to refer to the hearts of the wicked.
• Repetition of כִּ֤י in vv. 5a and 6b.
• Repetition of similar letters רֵֽעֵיהֶ֑ם (v. 3c - "their neighbors"), וְ֝רָעָ֗ה (v. 3d - "and evil") and וּֽרְעֵ֥ם (v. 9c - "and shepherd them").
• Participant analysis supports the poetic structure of Psalm 28:

• vv. 1-2: David and YHWH
• vv. 3-5: David, YHWH, and the enemies
• vv. 6-7: David and YHWH
• vv. 8-9: David, YHWH, and YHWH's people

The structural analysis above fully agrees with the divisions of several scholars such as Alonso-Schokel, Kirkpatrick, Kraus, and Wilson (cf. Alonso-Schokel 1992, 442; Kirkpatrick 1906, 144; Kraus 1988, 338; Wilson 2002, 493). Moreover, the divisions of the first part of the psalm (vv. 1-2; vv. 3-5) agree with Kissane (cf. Kissane 1953, 122-123). The divisions of the second part of the psalm (vv. 6-7; v. 8-9) agree with Van der Lugt and Craigie (cf. Van der Lugt 2006, 288 and Craigie 2004, 237). However, the above structural analysis differs from Ross in terms of the division of smaller units. Ross divided Ps 28 into the following sections: v. 1; vv. 2-4; v. 5; vv. 6-8; v. 9 (Ross 2011, 640-641). For an overview of other structural analyses, see Van der Lugt 2006, 291-292.

Line Division

• v. 8a. * * for emendation see exegetical issue The Text of Ps. 28:8a (MT: לָ֑מוֹ).
• Psalm 28:1-5a is preserved in the Qumran manuscript 4Q85, which is written in lines; the proposed line division for vv. 1-5a follows the line division in this manuscript. The division for the remaining verses (vv. 5b-9) is supported by the MT accents and pausal forms. Additionally, the proposed division of Psalm 28 into lines is reflected in the LXX according to Rahlfs' 1931 edition with the exception of three verses (vv. 2, 6, and 9):
  • While the LXX divides v. 2 into two line, we have divided this verse into four lines. The four line division is supported by the 4Q85, and it keeps the four line pattern of vv. 1, 3, and 4.
  • The LXX has only one line for v. 6. We have opted to follow the Masoretic accentuation (which places an athnach below יְהוָ֑ה) dividing v. 6 into two lines (like v. 8).
  • Although the LXX has two lines for v. 9, we have divided this verse into three lines. This division is supported by the MT accents as well as the pausal forms. Moreover, this division highlights how both sections of the psalm (vv. 1-5 and vv. 6-9) ends with verses (vv. 5 and 9) composed of three lines.
• The above line division fully agrees with Kissane's division (Kissane 1953, 122-123), but it differs from Van der Lugt in two verses (vv. 2 and 9). For Van der Lugt, v. 2 is composed of three lines and v. 9 of two lines (Van der Lugt 2006, 288). However, we prefer four lines for v. 2 following 4Q85, and three lines for v. 9. Fokkelman noted that v. 9 is a tricolon representing closure to the psalm (Fokkelman 2000, 120; so Labuschage 2008, 1).

Poetic Features

1. Down to the Pit or Up to the Sanctuary?

Feature

vv. 1 and 2. The phrases י֥וֹרְדֵי בֽוֹר - ("those who go down to the Pit") and אֶל־דְּבִ֥יר קָדְשֶֽׁךָ׃ ("toward your holy inner sanctuary") are bound together by closely matching sounds (the letters ד, י, ב, ר) and by contrasted movements of direction (downward vs. upward) These letters also occur in v. 3c.

v. 1d. י֥וֹרְדֵי בֽוֹר - ("those who go down to the Pit"). The first phrase speaks of the downward motion of those who "go down to the Pit", which refers to the "process by which humans die and descend into the world of the dead" (SDBH). Therefore, "those who go down to the Pit" means "those who die" (cf. Pss 30:3; 88: 5; 143:7), and the psalmist is on the edge of this possibility, asking for help.

There is also a contrast in elevation between צוּרִי (my rock - v. 1b) and י֥וֹרְדֵי בֽוֹר (those who go down to the Pit - v. 1d). The rock is up high while the Pit is below ground. David does not want to go down to the Pit (=to die). So, he seeks YHWH's protection. YHWH is "high up" and able to protect David from death.

v. 2d. בְּנָשְׂאִ֥י יָ֝דַ֗י אֶל־דְּבִ֥יר קָדְשֶֽׁךָ׃ (I lift up my hands toward your holy inner sanctuary). The second phrase speaks of hands lifted up towards God's sanctuary, placing the sanctuary above the psalmist, in contrast to the Pit below. The word דְּבִ֥יר refers to the holy of holies, the "inner sanctuary" in God's temple. As this is a rare word that occurs only here in the Psalter, it is likely that it was specifically chosen to contrast with the similar sounds of י֥וֹרְדֵי בֽוֹר in v. 1d. The Psalter often speaks about the sanctuary (=holy place) using the Hebrew word קֹדֶשׁ (e.g., Ps 134:2 שְׂאֽוּ־יְדֵכֶ֥ם קֹ֑דֶשׁ - "Lift up your hands toward the sanctuary [=toward the holy place]"). Moreover, the root נשא ("lift up") in v. 2d repeats in v. 9c ("lift up, carry" >> "care for, to help" [SDBH]).

v. 3c. דֹּבְרֵ֣י שָׁ֭לֹום עִם־רֵֽעֵיהֶ֑ם וְ֝רָעָ֗ה בִּלְבָבָֽם (those who speak peace with their neighbors but [speak] evil in their hearts). The wicked are duplicitous for they pretend to care for the well-being of their neighbors, but they secretly wish harm upon them. David, on other hand, genuinely cares for the people; we see his care in his blessing (intercessory prayer) for them (v. 9).

Effect

The juxtaposition of "those who go down to the Pit" (v. 1d י֥וֹרְדֵי בֽוֹר) and lifting hands up "toward your holy inner sanctuary" (v. 2d אֶל־דְּבִ֥יר קָדְשֶֽׁךָ׃) poetically positions David with the pit below him and the sanctuary above him. This poetic positioning frames David's dependence on YHWH in the midst of great affliction, wherein David, on the edge of descending into death, lifts up his hands toward the inner sanctuary, as if reaching out for YHWH's help. At the end of the psalm, David's prayer for God to lift up (נַשְּׂאֵ֗ם) others reflects the fact that God has lifted David up and not let him go down to the pit.

The contrast between the Pit and the sanctuary sets up the "opposites" of the whole psalm; i.e., the very opposite fate of the pit (which the wicked get) versus the refuge (which God’s people get). YHWH will tear down the wicked, but his people shall find refuge in his presence.

Another possible effect is seen in the repetition of the letters in v. 3c where David exposes the deceitful speech of the wicked in order to distinguish himself from them. Whereas the wicked speak falsely to their neighbors, David speaks with sincerity to God. He praises YHWH (v. 6), he speaks of his trust in YHWH (v. 7), and he voices an intercessory prayer for YHWH's people (v. 9). These actions demonstrate David's integrity and distinguish him from those who speak falsely. The contrast between David and the wicked draws together a key theme of the psalm: YHWH repays the wicked (and the righteous) according to their speech and deeds. The wicked who speak peace double-mindedly receive destruction, but David who speaks with integrity receives YHWH's blessing. In other words, David does not belong with those who go down to the Pit.

2. Poetic Justice

Feature

Verse 4d stands out in three main ways:

1. Centrality of v. 4d (הָשֵׁ֖ב גְּמוּלָ֣ם לָהֶֽם - "Repay them their dealings!")
2. Balanced word count (46 prosodic words) before and after v. 4d
3. Repeated use of the roots פעל על ("deed") and עשה ("work") around v. 4d

This feature is underscored by:

• The wordplay on lamed/aleph plus yod/bet/nun in v. 5ac:
  • v. 5a. לֹ֤א יָבִ֡ינוּ (they do not regard), and v. 5c. לֹ֣א יִבְנֵֽם׃ (he will not build them up)
• The phonetic chain of גְּ - כְּ - כְ - כְּ ending in v.4d (Fokkelman 2000, 120)
• The chiastic structure preceding v. 4d:
  • v. 4a: (A) Give to them (B) according to their deeds,
  • v. 4c: (B') according to the work of their hands (A') Give to them.

Effect

The effect of this feature is fourfold:

1. The perfectly balanced word count may serve to remind us of the perfect balance of YHWH’s justice.
2. The position of v.4d highlights the solution to David’s problem and the turning point of the psalm; YHWH is just to repay the wicked (and by implication the righteous) their dealings. YHWH gives all according to their work and deeds (cf. Jer 25:14; 17:10; Job 34:11; Ps 62:12; Rom. 2:6).
3. Only the evildoers' deeds are mentioned prior to v. 5, however, once YHWH gets involved, all mention of their deeds ceases. YHWH's involvement is thus the solution to the evildoers' deeds.
4. Poetic justice: the wordplay between לֹא יָבִינוּ and לֹא יִבְנֵם illustrates the result of the evildoers' deeds, namely, their permanent destruction. The evildoers are repaid fully and properly, in that they did not regard the deeds and works of YHWH, so YHWH will not build them up.

3. Blessing is Reciprocal!

Feature

Verse 6 repeats words from the beginning and ending of Psalm 28. The words שמע קול תחנוני occur in vv. 2a and 6b, and the root ברך occurs in vv. 6a and v. 9b. Vv. 2 and 9 are connected not only through v. 6 but also through the repetition of the root נשא (vv. 2b and 9c):

שמע קול תחנוני - v. 2a ("hear the sound of my supplications!") - v. 6b ("he [YHWH] has heard the sound of my supplications")

ברך - v. 6a ("Blessed be") - v. 9b ("Bless")

נשא - v. 2b ("lift up") - v. 9c ("lift up, carry" >> "care for, to help" [SDBH])

Effect

As the people’s representative, David’s fate determines theirs. When his prayer is answered, he receives favor with God and so do the people. That is demonstrated first in his blessing YHWH for answered prayer and then turning around and blessing the people with YHWH’s provision and care.

David lifts up (נשא) his hands in prayer to YHWH, at first for himself, in order that YHWH would lift up (נשא) the people in his care for them. David represents the people in two ways: in himself, personally (needing personal deliverance) and corporately (seeking blessing on their behalf).

Repeated Roots

The repeated roots table is intended to identify the roots which are repeated in the psalm.

For legend, click "Expand" to the right

Legend for Repeated Roots

Notes

• Based on repeated words/roots, the psalm might be divided into two sections (vv. 1-5 // vv. 6-9).
• The divine name (יְהוָה - YHWH) occurs five times (vv. 1a, 5a, 6a, 7a, and 8a).
• The following roots occur three times within the psalm: יָד (hand - vv. 2b, 4c, and 5b), פעל (deed vv. 3b, 4a, and 5a), and עז (strength vv. 7a, 8a, and 8b).
• The following roots occur two times within the psalm: אַל (not vv. 1b and 3a), שׁמע (hear - vv. 2a and 6b), קול (sound - vv. 2a and 6b), חנן (have mercy - vv. 2a and 6b), נשׂא (to lift/carry vv. 2b and 9b), רעע (evil vv. 3c and 4b, נתן (give vv. 4a and 4c), מַעֲשֶׂה (work, deed vv. 4c and 5b),ברך (to bless vv. 6a and 9a), and ישׁע (to save vv. 8b and 9a).

Possible implications:

• The repeated roots שׁמע (hear - vv. 2a and 6b), קול (sound - vv. 2a and 6b), חנן (have mercy - vv. 2a and 6b) link the psalmist's plea (first half of the psalm) and YHWH's answer to his plea (second half of the psalm). The psalm begins with a request that God would hear and answer the psalmist's supplications. Then, in the second half of the psalm, the repeated roots highlight that YHWH has heard the psalmist. The repeated roots demonstrate the movement from prayer to praise. They also reflect the truth that YHWH is known to answer those who call on him (cf. Pss 34:4, 18:6, 118:5, etc.).
• לבב (heart vv. 3c, 7b, and 7c): in v. 7, the psalmist mentions his own heart which creates a contrast to the enemies' heart (v. 3): "their heart was wicked, but his trusts and rejoices" (Ross 2011, 647). The psalmist uses לב exclusively to refer to his own heart (v. 7bc) and opts to use לבב to refer to the hearts of the wicked (v. 3c).
• יָד (hand - vv. 2b, 4c, and 5b): The term hand occurs three times in this psalm demonstrating the relationship between the psalmist, the wicked, and YHWH. "The psalmist raises his hands to God in prayer (v. 2), the wicked raise their hands against their neighbors to work violence (v. 4), and they do so because they are not able to discern the work of God’s hands (v. 5). The work of God’s hands is to be a refuge and deliverance for the needy who call for and trust in God’s help (vv. 7–8)" (Jacobson and Tanner 2014, 276–277).
• In addition to יָד (hand - vv. 2b, 4c, and 5b), the following roots only occur in the first part of the psalm: פעל (deed vv. 3b, 4a, and 5a), רעע (evil vv. 3c and 4b), נתן (give vv. 4a and 4c), and מַעֲשֶׂה ( vv. 4c and 5b). We learn from these terms that the deeds and works of the psalmist's enemies are evil. We also learn that the wicked enemies show no regard for YHWH's works. Therefore, the psalmist asks that YHWH would give them according to their actions. Verse 5 concludes the first half of Ps 28 with the psalmist's claim: יֶהֶרְסֵם וְלֹא יִבְנֵם (YHWH "will tear them down and build them up no more" ESV). Interestingly, after this claim, neither the psalmist's enemies nor these roots (פעל, רעע, נתן ,מַעֲשֶׂה) occur in Ps 28. The second half of the psalm is marked by a celebration of YHWH's answer to the psalmist's prayer.
• The following roots only occur in the second part of the psalm: עז (strength vv. 7a, 8a, and 8b), and ישׁע (to save vv. 8b and 9a). These roots demonstrate the concern of the psalmist for God's people. For instance, the root for save/deliver (ישׁע) refers to the psalmist's prayer that God would be a refuge of salvation for the people as he has been for his anointed (מָעֹוז יְשׁוּעֹות - v. 8 and הוֹשִׁיעָה - v. 9). The psalm begins and ends with a prayer in which we see two other repeated roots:
  • ברך (to bless - vv. 6a and 9a) - The psalmist blessed YHWH and asked YHWH to bless the people (vv. 6a and 9a).
  • נשׂא (to lift/carry - vv. 2b and 9b) - In v. 2b, the psalmist lifted up his hands in prayer to YHWH. In v. 9b, he asked YHWH to carry his people (נשׂא "to lift up, carry" >> "care for, to help" [SDBH]).
• Overall, it seems the psalm is moving from actions on the part of people to blessing, strength, and salvation issuing from YHWH. All in a framework of petitioning YHWH.
• Based on our Creator Guidelines, "the repeated roots table is intended to identify content words (i.e. those that have semantic content, as opposed to function words like prepositions or conjunctions)." For this reason, the following roots were repeated throughout the psalm but were not included in the table:
  • vv. 1a and 2a (אֵלֶיךָ); vv. 2b, 5a (אֶל); and 5b (וְאֶל)
  • vv. 1b and 1c (מִמֶּנִּי)
  • vv. 1b (אָל) and 3a (אַל)
  • vv. 1d (עִם), 3a (עִם), 3b (וְעִם), 3c (עִם)
  • vv. 4a, 4c, 4d (לָהֶם)
  • vv. 5a and 6b (כִּי)
  • vv. 5a (לֹא) and 5c (וְלֹא)

Bibliography

Alter, Robert. 2019. The Hebrew Bible: The Writings. Vol. 3. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Craigie, Peter C. 2004. Word Biblical Commentary: Psalms 1–50. 2nd ed. Vol. 19. Nashville: Nelson Reference & Electronic.

DeClaissé-Walford, Nancy L., Rolf A. Jacobson, and Beth Laneel Tanner. 2014. “Book One of the Psalter: Psalms 1–41,” in The Book of Psalms, ed. E. J. Young, R. K. Harrison, and Robert L.

Fokkelman, J. P. 2000. Major Poems of the Hebrew Bible: At the Interface of Hermeneutics and Structural Analysis. Studia Semitica Neerlandica. Assen, The Netherlands: Van Gorcum.

Kirkpatrick, Alexander F. 1906. The Book of Psalms. London: Cambridge University Press.

Kissane, Monsignor Edward J. 1953. The Book of Psalms: Translated from A Critically Revised Hebrew Text. Vol. 1. Maryland: The Newman Press.

Kraus, Hans-Joachim. 1988. Psalms 1–59. Minneapolis: Fortress.

Labuschagne, Casper. 2008. "Psalm 28: Logotechnical Analysis." Accessed June 29, 2024. http://www.labuschagne.nl/ps028.pdf.

Lugt, Pieter van der. 2006. Cantos and Strophes in Biblical Hebrew Poetry: With Special Reference to the First Book of the Psalter. Vol. 1. 3 vols. Oudtestamentische Studiën 53. Leiden: Brill.

Ross, Allen P. 2011. A Commentary on the Psalms 1-41. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Kregel.

Schökel, Luis Alonso. 1992. Salmos I (Salmos 1-72): Traducción, Introducciones y Comentario. Navarra: Verbo Divino.

Wilson, Gerald H. 2002. The NIV Application Commentary: Psalms. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.