Psalm 28 Semantics

Psalm Overview

• Grammar
• Semantics
• Story behind the Psalm
• Discourse
• Poetics

About the Semantics Layer

Semantics is the study of how language is used to represent meaning. The goal of semantic analysis for interpreting and translating the Bible is to understand the meaning of words and how they relate to each other in context. We want to understand what is implicit about word meaning – and thus assumed by the original audience – and make it explicit – and thus clear for us who are removed by time, language, and culture. The semantics layer is composed of three major branches: lexical semantics, phrase-level semantics and verbal semantics. (Click 'Expand' to the right for more information.)

About Lexical Semantics

One major branch of semantic study is lexical semantics, which refers to the study of word meanings. It examines semantic range (=possible meanings of a word), the relationship between words (e.g. synonymy, hyponymy), as well as the relationship between words and larger concepts (conceptual domains). One component of our approach involves not only the study of the Hebrew word meaning, but also of our own assumptions about word meaning in modern languages. Because the researcher necessarily starts with their own cultural assumptions (in our case, those of Western-trained scholars), this part of the analysis should be done afresh for every culture.

For a detailed description of our method, see the Lexical Semantics Creator Guidelines.

About Phrase-level Semantics

The Phrase-level Semantics layer analyses the meaning of syntactic units which are larger than the level of the word and smaller than the level of the clause. Specifically, this layer analyses the meaning of prepositional phrases (e.g., לְאִישׁ), construct phrases (e.g., אִישׁ אֱלֹהִים), phrases formed by a coordinating waw conjunction (e.g., אִישׁ וְאִשָּׁה) and noun phrases which consist of a noun plus a determiner (e.g., הָאִישׁ) or a quantifier (e.g., כֹּל אִישׁ).

For a detailed description of our method, see the Phrase-level Semantics Creator Guidelines.

About Verbal Semantics

This sub-layer focuses on the relationship between verbs, time and modality. These are important categories for interpretation and translation, and how one analyses a verb can have a significant effect on how it is rendered. This sub-layer has been through several iterations, as it strives to accomplish two things: (1) Transparency for the native Hebrew structures, and (2) Transparency for the interpretation necessary to translate the verbal semantics into other languages.

For a detailed description of our method, see the Verbal Semantics Creator Guidelines.

Semantics Visuals for Psalm 28

Lexical and Phrase-level Semantics Diagram

For legend, click "Expand" to the right

	Prepositional phrase	Construct chain	Construct chain within a prepositional phrase	Phrase-level waw	Article and כֹּל
Diagram Shading
Definition	- A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition plus its object. The phrase usually modifies the clause or another constituent in the clause.	- A construct chain, also called a 'genitive phrase', is a grammatical encoding of the relationship 'A of B,' in which A is a phonologically modified noun (in the construct state), and B is a phonologically unmodified noun (the absolute state).	- Some construct chains occur within prepositional phrases	- A waw conjunction can join units of all sizes. Phrase level waw join units at the word or phrase level (i.e., below the level of the clause).	- Definite articles tell you something about the identifiability or inclusiveness about the word it is attached to - כֹּל is a quantifier that tells you about the scope of a word it is attached to

• See our growing collection of Venn Diagrams, not only for Psalm 28, but for all of the psalms.
• See SDBH on Psalm 28.

v. 1

• See our discussion of לְדָוִד.
• The metaphor my rock describes God as the one who gives shelter, refuge, and protection to his people. In his distress, the psalmist cries out to YHWH addressing him as his rock. This word usually indicates trust. The image of a "rock" or "cliff" (צוּר) “is employed metaphorically in contexts describing the action of Yahweh, and the personal experience of deliverance from adversity, where the deity is seen to be a refuge in which one may trust” (Basson 2006, 125). “The rocky terrain of Canaan provides the background for this rich imagery found in the Bible. Because of its hardness, [rock] צור conveys the idea of stability and immovability. It provides a solid foundation, protection and security. Its literal use of providing shade from an overhanging ‘rock’/’cliff’ in the desert sun (Isa. 33:2) was extended to the figurative use of God providing refuge for his people” (Basson 2006, 124). Hence, the use of rock (צור) articulates the psalmist’s trust in God’s ability to protect him (Basson 2006, 125-126).
• The Hebrew words translated be deaf (תֶּחֱרַשׁ) and be silent (תֶּֽחֱשֶׁה) present similar sounds. The first verb, which usually occurs in poetry, does not refer literally to the inability to hear, but to a willful inattentiveness on the part of God. Stated positively, the psalmist pleads that God would hear him and answer him instead of choosing to ignore him. Nevertheless, instead of using the typical verbal pairing "hear!" (שְׁמַע, cf. Pss 17:6; 27:7; 30:11; 54:4; 64:2; 143:1) and "answer me!" (וַעֲנֵנִי cf. Pss 27:7; 34:5; 55:3), the psalmist may have chosen to use the words אַל־תֶּחֱרַשׁ (do not be deaf) and תֶּֽחֱשֶׁה (be silent) because of the soundplay formed by these words. The soundplay could be contributing to the psalmist’s intense desire for God’s attention.
• vv. 1b and 1c both end with the prepositional phrase to me (מִמֶּנִּי). The repeated ending (epiphora) emphasizes the psalmist as the person whom YHWH should hear and answer.
• The verb be like (משׁל) describes a "state in which humans are similar in shape, behavior or experience to others" (SDBH). According to Ross, "this word is used mainly when the two objects compared form a contrast that is unacceptable" (Ross 2011, 641). The psalmist does not want to be like those going down to the Pit, namely, the dead.

Illustration of a Pit by Keel 1997, 71.

• The word for Pit (בֹּור) is synonymous with Sheol (cf. Ps 30:3-4, Prov 1:12), and it refers to the world of the dead. (SDBH). "In Hebrew the precise meaning of [בֹּור] is 'cistern.' Its similarity to the grave explains the application of the term to the realm of the dead. In individual psalms, dying can be described by analogy to sinking into a cistern (cf. Pss 28:1; 30:3; 88:4)"(Keel 1997, 71). Although a cistern was similar in appearance to a grave, they also had some differences. For instance, "the cistern, distinct from the cave-tomb, has no lateral access; rather it drops precipitously from above, like a shaft-tomb. No one could extricate himself from such a cistern" (Keel 1997, 70). Considering that it was impossible to escape from a cistern without outside help, in Ps 28:1, we see the psalmist crying out to God. The psalmist recognizes that without God's help it will be impossible for him to escape from בֹּור (cistern, Pit>>death). Craigie noted, "The psalmist’s fear is this: if God were silent, then he would be one of the dead, for the realm of death was a realm of silence" (Craigie 2004, 238).
• "The state of death is a going down to the pit (Ps 28:1). Hence the dead are those who go down to the pit (Ps 88:4 [H 5], 6 [H 7]; 143:7)." To go down to the Pit (ירד בוֹר) refers to the "process by which humans die and descend into the world of the dead" (SDBH). Hence, the dead are those who go down to the Pit. The phrase "and I become like those who go down to the Pit" (וְנִמְשַׁלְתִּי עִם־יוֹרְדֵי בוֹר) also occurs word-for-word in Ps 143:7. However, the phrase "and I become like those who go down to the Pit" (וְנִמְשַׁלְתִּי עִם־יוֹרְדֵי בוֹר) is paired with different metaphors in Ps 28:1 and in Ps 143:7. In Ps 28:1, the phrase is paired with the metaphor "do not be deaf to me" (אַֽל־תֶּחֱרַ֪שׁ מִ֫מֶּ֥נִּי). In Ps 143:7, the phrase is paired with the metaphor "do not hide your face from me" (אַל־תַּסְתֵּ֣ר פָּנֶ֣יךָ מִמֶּ֑נִּי) perhaps focusing on the need to be seen by God. In contrast, the metaphor for deafness (אַֽל־תֶּחֱרַ֪שׁ מִ֫מֶּ֥נִּי - do not be deaf to me) in Ps 28:1 may serve to underscore the psalmist's need to be heard by YHWH.

v. 2

• When I cry to you for help (בְּשַׁוְּעִ֣י): The use of the verb "to cry for help" (שוע) occurs only in poetic texts, and it often appears in parallel with "to call/cry out" (קרא) (Tucker 2018, 50). In the Psalter, "to call/cry out" (קרא) typically appears when the psalmist calls for God to provide deliverance or aid. The verb "to cry for help" (שוע), on the other hand, has a more narrowly focused semantic range. According to DBLH, שוע means "to cry for help; i.e., to ask or request something, with a focus that the asking is intense or desperate, imploring for aid in a difficult or dangerous situation" (DBLH, שוע 8775). שוע is a cry for help out of distress. The intensity of the verb "to cry for help" (שוע) might be reflected by the fact that this verb occurs only in the piel stem (TWOT). Considering that שוע is a cry for help, a cry in times of hardship (cf. SDBH) the use of שוע in Ps 28:2 highlights the psalmist's need for God's help. In other words, the psalmist does not simply “call” (קרא) to God, but “screams out” (שוע) in distress (cf. Tucker 2018, 50).
• When I lift up my hands (בְּנָשְׂאִי יָדַי) signals a gesture of prayer (cf. TDOT). According to Hilber, "among postures of worship, lifting hands in prayer is commonly mentioned and portrayed pictographically in ancient Near Eastern cultures. Mesopotamians possessed an entire category of prayers named 'prayers with raised hands.' The meaning of the gesture is submission and hopeful appeal" (Hilber 2009, 344).
• Inner sanctuary (i.e., the Holy of Holiest): The term דְּבִיר occurs only here in the Psalter, and it refers to the inner sanctuary where the ark of the covenant was located. דְּבִיר was "regarded as the holiest place" within the sanctuary (SDBH), and it symbolized God's presence among his people. The word דְּבִיר often "appears in accounts for Solomon's Temple. This need not mean that the psalm is later than David; only that the word had become the standard term for the ark's abode by Solomon's time, which suggests that it was in use well before this" (Kidner 1973, 123). According to Ross, the image in Ps 28:2 is "that of the supplicant standing in the courtyard of the sanctuary with uplifted hands facing the Holy of Holies, where the Lord dwelt among his people, crying out for deliverance" (Ross 2011, 643). Some modern translations have rendered דְּבִיר as "oracle" (cf. KJB, LSV, YLT) perhaps following Jerome's Hebrew Psalter (oraculum). However, "the rendering 'oracle' conveys a wrong idea as though it were a place whence utterances proceeded" (Oesterley 1959, 198). As Kirkpatrick noted, the word דְּבִיר "does not in itself denote the place where God answers. It is used elsewhere only in the accounts of the building of the Temple (1 Kgs 6—8; 2 Chron 3—5)" (Kirkpatrick 1906, 145; cf also Kidner 1973, 123).

v. 3

• We understand the waw of עִם־רְשָׁעִים֮ וְעִם־פֹּ֪עֲלֵ֫י אָ֥וֶן as an epexegetical waw (with wicked people and with evildoers >> with wicked people, with evildoers). The wicked (רְשָׁעִים֮) and the evildoers (פֹּ֪עֲלֵ֫י אָ֥וֶן) are most likely co-referential (Cf. Ps 111:1 — בְּס֖וֹד יְשָׁרִ֣ים וְעֵדָֽה; cf. also Berry 1915, 211; Mays 1994, 134; Broyles 1999, 148; VanGemeren 2008, 289; etc.).
• דֹּבְרֵ֣י שָׁ֭לוֹם עִם־רֵֽעֵיהֶ֑ם וְ֝רָעָ֗ה בִּלְבָבָֽם׃ (those who speak peace with their neighbors but [speak] evil in their hearts) is in apposition to עִם־פֹּ֪עֲלֵ֫י אָ֥וֶן (with evildoers), and it specifies a characteristic of the first member (i.e., evildoers). David's enemies are wicked, evildoers who pretend to care for the well-being of their neighbors, but they secretly wish harm upon them. Thus, the enemies are duplicitous, masking their true intentions with friendly speech.
• בִּלְבָבָֽם (in the heart of them >> in their hearts): In Ps 28:3, the singular לבב (heart) refers to a plurality of hearts; therefore, it is translated in English as "hearts" (so in LXX: ἐν ταῖς καρδίαις αὐτῶν "in their hearts." Cf. also Pss 4:5 and 10:17). According to Joüon-Muraoka, Biblical Hebrew has a "tendency to use the singular instead of the plural in a case where several individuals share the same feature, especially a limb (hand, head, heart, mouth), or a voice etc. . . . Jr 32.40 'I will put the fear of me in their heart.' (The plural hearts is rare: 8 x)" (Joüon-Muraoka §136l, page 472).
• In Ps 26:9, the psalmist asks YHWH: אַל־תֶּאֱסֹף עִם־חַטָּאִים נַפְשִׁי וְעִם־אַנְשֵׁי דָמִים חַיָּי ("Do not take away my soul with sinful people; and [do not take away] my life with bloodthirsty people" [Ps 26:9, Layer by Layer]). This request is similar to the petition in Ps 28:3, אַל־תִּמְשְׁכֵנִי עִם־רְשָׁעִים וְעִם־פֹּעֲלֵי אָוֶן (Do not drag me with wicked people, evildoers . . .). The psalmist does not want YHWH to "bring upon him what he usually brings upon the wicked; that is, an untimely death" (Kwakkel 2002, 129).
• Their neighbors (רֵעֵיהֶם) refer to those who have "some level of association" with the psalmist's enemies (SDBH). The association may be geographical, circumstantial, social, or even personal (SDBH).
• Wicked people (רְשָׁעִים֮):

• Evildoers (פֹּ֪עֲלֵ֫י אָ֥וֶן):

• Evil (רָעָ֗ה):

v. 4

• Deeds: "When applied to God, [פֹּעַל - deed] refers primarily to God’s acts in history, not his acts in creation. When applied to man [פֹּעַל - deed] often has a moral nuance, positively, Prov 21:8; negatively, Prov 21:6, for example" (TWOT).
• The noun practice (מַעֲלָל) usually refers to "bad practices of men" (BDB).
• Work (מַעֲשֶׂה): "the focused expenditure of energy in order to do or accomplish a goal or task" (DBLH).
• According to BDB גְּמוּל may be glossed as "dealing," "recompense," or "benefit." In Ps 28: 4, the psalmist is invoking YHWH to repay the wicked their dealings (cf. Ps 94:2). We have rendered הָשֵׁ֖ב גְּמוּלָ֣ם as "repay their dealings" (cf. TDOT and Bate 1767, 116). Following are a few examples of how modern translations have translated הָשֵׁ֖ב גְּמוּלָ֣ם: "give them their deserts" (JPS, 1985); "bring back on them what they deserve" (NIV); "render them their due reward" (ESV); "Give them a taste of what they have done to others" (NLT); "punish them" (NET).
• The verb glossed as to repay is the causative of the verb שׁוּב (Hiphil "to bring back"[HALOT]). It refers to the "process by which humans or deities cause (other) humans or deities to receive the appropriate return for their actions, which can be either good or bad -- to repay; to pay back; to punish; to reward" (SDBH). As Ross noted, "The verb changes from "give" (תֵּן) to "bring back" (הָשֵׁב from שׁוּב) because it will be a just recompense—their sins and the results of their sins will come back on them" (Ross 2011, 645). The psalmist's prayer is a prayer for YHWH's fair judgment.

v. 5

• To regard (בין) is often "used to convey the idea of giving attention to God’s deeds" (TDOT). In Ps 28:5, do not regard (לא בין) "means do not think important, think to be of no value, despise" (Bratcher and Reyburn 1991, 272). In other words, the wicked do not regard (= they despise) the deeds and works of YHWH; therefore YHWH will destroy them (cf. TDOT). Other translations for the verb they do not regard (לֹ֤א יָבִ֡ינוּ) include, "they care nothing" (NLT); "they do not understand" (NET); "they do not consider" (JPS, 1985); "they pay no heed" (NEB).
• To tear down (הרס) is associated with YHWH's act of judgment, and it means "to destroy," "to overthrow" enemies (Exod 15:7; Jer 1:10; Prov 14:11; HALOT). Thus, "tearing down is a figure for judgment and ruin, and building up [בנה] would be a figure for establishing and making secure (both are implied comparisons). It is as if the ungodly are a building that will be demolished and not rebuilt (see Mal 1:1-5). The figure is very realistic; in wars it was often the case that when people were destroyed their houses were decimated (see Jer 24:6). Defeat was therefore devastating and humiliating" (Ross 2011, 646).
• To build (בנה) is also associated with "the 'building' of a family, people, dynasty" (TDOT; 2 Sam 7: 11, 27; Deut 25:9; Ruth 4:11; Ps 89:5). The implication is that the wicked treat YHWH with contempt and do not regard the deeds of YHWH and the work of his hands. Therefore, YHWH will tear them down (i.e., he will destroy them), and he will not build them up. In other words, their destruction will be permanent. By contrast, YHWH promised David that he would build him a house (=a dynasty) that would last forever (cf. 2 Sam 7:11, 16; Ps 61:5-7). YHWH will judge David favorably and save him from the fate of the wicked.

v. 6

• The words שמע קול תחנוני occur in vv. 2a (Hear the sound of my supplications!) and v. 6b (He [YHWH] has heard the sound of my supplications) binding the psalmist's plea (vv. 1-5) with YHWH's answer to the plea (vv. 6-9).

v. 7

• The preposition בְּ in בּוֹ ([my heart has trusted] in him) "introduces the person or thing, which is the object of a mental act, e.g. הֶֽאֱמִין בְּ to trust in (to cleave trustingly to) somebody or something; בָּטַח בְּ to have confidence in..." (GKC §119l (3)).
• The preposition מִן in וּמִשִּׁירִי (and out of my song >> and with my song) carries its prototypical use as source as well as the notion of instrumentality. In other words, it is a מִן of source and, semantically, because the source is involved as the instrument of an accomplishment, instrumentality is semantically justifiable. Perowne's rendering expresses this notion: "out of my song (>> with my song) I give him thanks." See The meaning of וּמִשִּׁירִי in Ps. 28:7b for further information.
• Shield (מָגֵן): "a flat, usually round, object; made of wood or metal; used in battle; held by a warrior in front of him as protection from the weapons of his opponent; relatively small and easy to maneuver; ≈ associated with protection and therefore often used as an epithet for God -- shield" (SDBH).
• "To exult, rejoice, to gloat" (SDBH): The verb to exult (עלז) and its derivatives עָלֵז (exultant) and עַלִּיז (exultant, jubilant) "describe an emotion of joy which finds expression in singing and shouting. It is inappropriate for one in anguish (Jer 15:17) and for one who has sinned (Jer 11:15). By contrast it is a natural response of the faithful (Ps 149:5), even being ascribed to God himself (Ps 60:6 [H 8]=Ps 108:7 [H 8])" (TWOT; cf. Ross 2011, 647). While the psalmist exults, he also praises the Lord in song (ידה). In the ancient Near East, music symbolized joy, so the psalmist’s eruption into praise signified his deliverance from distress (Zwickel 2017, 98).

v. 8

• *לְעַמּו* (of his people). Instead of following the MT reading לָמוֹ (to them >> their), we follow the reading לְעַמּוֹ (to/of his people), found in the LXX, Peshitta, and some medieval manuscripts. The MT's reading לָמוֹ, which creates difficulties since there is no clear antecedent for the suffix, can be explained as a phonetic spelling variant of לְעַמּוֹ. "At a time when the ayin was not pronounced . . . a scribe copied לעמו as למו." For these reasons, we have rendered Ps 28:8a as, יְהוָ֥ה עֹֽז־לְעַמּוֹ ("YHWH is the strength of his people"). For a full analysis of this line, see exegetical issue The Text of Ps. 28:8a.
• Refuge (מָעֹוז): "large fortification; for the defense of a town; built of stone; could consist of one extra strong building or of a complex of buildings surrounded by its own strong wall; ≈ associated with protection and security and often used as an epithet for God" (SDBH). In the OT, Yahweh is often identified as the refuge (מָעֹוז) of his people (cf. Ps 27:1; 2 Sam 22:33; Neh 8:10; Prov 10:25). The following table explores this image of refuge.

v. 9

• Save! (הֹושִׁיעָה). Having experienced God's salvation for himself, the psalmist now prays that God would save his people. The psalmist's "request is for the Lord to deliver the nation from all its enemies and troubles, as he did him" (Ross 2011, 648).
• Possession (נַחֲלָה) = "a nation or people that is in a covenantal relationship with YHWH and therefore regarded as YHWH's possession -- heritage; one's own people" (SDBH). The people of Israel were God's inalienable inheritance, and whom he protected (Deut. 4:20, 9: 26, 29; Exod 34:9; cf. Barnes 1869, 246). "One’s 'inheritance' (naḥalah) is that property acquired during a lifetime that cannot be taken away but remains to be passed on to one’s descendants. Israel is God’s 'inheritance' in the sense that they are his possession, and no one else can lay any claim on her." In addition to "inheritance" (NIV), modern translations have translated נַחֲלָה (in Ps 28:9) as "special possession" (NLT), "heritage" (ESV, NRSV), and "nation that belongs to you [YHWH]" (NET).
• To shepherd (רעה): "causative action by which humans lead domestic animals to places where they can feed on grass and other edible materials in the field, ≈ often extended to denote the way a king cares for his subjects or the way God cares for his people -- to pasture; to feed; to shepherd" (SDBH). A shepherds professional duties include leading, feeding, sheltering, and protecting the sheep (cf. Hossfeld and Zenger 2005, 313). Hence, the psalmist asks YHWH to shepherd his (YHWH) people. The following table explores this image of shepherd.
• In this verse, the root נשׂא means to carry "= action by which humans provide help and support to other humans -- to care for; to assist; to help; to support" (SDBH). The root נשא occurs in vv. 2b and 9c. In the beginning of the psalm David "lifts up" (נשא) his hands in prayer, and in the end he asks YHWH to "carry" (נשא) his people, meaning "to lift up" the people out of their afflictions and "carry" them to safety forever! In sum, the psalmist asks YHWH to carry (נשׂא) Israel, that is, to care for Israel forever. GNT's translation reflects this meaning, "Be their shepherd, and take care of them forever" (GNT).
• Indefinite duration >> forever (עַד־הָעֹולָם): The term עֹולָם refers to an indefinite duration of time. In the context of Ps 28, it means "forever" as the psalmist prays that God's care for his people would be never-ending (cf. Ross 2011, 649).
• The articular case in עַד־הָעוֹלָֽם (forever) is a 'unique reference' (the eternity – there is only one eternity). Considering העולם and עולם, Bodine noted that "the presence or absence of the article makes no difference" (Bodine 1992, 147; so TDOT: "Only beginning with Jeremiah is ʿôlām used with the article (13 times), though no semantic shift seems discernible"). Cf. Ps. 133:3 for another occurrence of העולם.

Verbal Semantics Chart

For legend, click "Expand" to the right

	Tense	Aspect	Reference point movement	Modality
Definition	A situation's location in time	Internal temporal constituency of a situation as portrayed	Whether or not the expected reference point in the discourse is updated after the situation.	Distinguishing between indicative, volitional and other forms of modality, as determined by morphology; word order; particles; context
Options	Relative: a situation's location in time relative to a reference point Absolute: a situation's location in time relative to the moment of speech	Continuous Habitual/iterative Stative	Expected movement: usually perfective No expected movement: usually imperfective	indicative jussive imperative cohortative wish purpose/result past (conditional) possible probable interrogative
Symbol

For steps to determine relative tense and reference point movement click "Expand" to the right:

Where is action relative to reference point?				What question is prompted by verb tense?			Do we expect reference point to move?
	After reference point (Posterior)
		Imperative			What next?	Posterior (relative future)	Yes	⇐
		Yiqtol			What next? What now?	Posterior (relative future Simultaneous (relative imperfective present)	Yes	⇐
		Weqatal
		Weyiqtol					No	⇍
		Wayyiqtol
	At reference point (Simultaneous)
		Yiqtol			What now?	Simultaneous (relative imperfective present)	No	⇍
		Participle
		Weyiqtol
		Infinitive
	Before reference point (Anterior)
		Qatal			What next? What now?	Anterior (relative past) Simultaneous (relative imperfect present)	Yes	⇐
		Wayyiqtol					No	⇍

Bibliography

Alter, Robert. 2019. The Hebrew Bible: The Writings. Vol. 3. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Barnes, Albert. 1869. Notes: Critical, Explanatory, and Practical on the Book of Psalms. Vol. 1. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers.

Basson, Alec. 2006. Divine Metaphors in Selected Hebrew Psalms of Lamentation. Germany: Mohr Siebeck Tübingen.

Bate, Julius. 1767. Critica Hebræa: Or, A Hebrew-English Dictionary, Without Points: In Which the Several Derivatives are Reduced to Their Genuine Roots, Their Specific Significations from Thence Illustrated, and Exemplified by Passages Cited at Length from Scripture, the Several Versions of which are Occasionally Corrected. The Whole Supplying the Place of a Commentary on the Words and More Difficult Passages in the Sacred Writings. London: M. Folingsby.

Berry, Elwood Sylvester. 1915. Commentary on the Psalms: Psalms I-L. New York: Benziger Brothers.

Bratcher, Robert G., and William D. Reyburn. 1991. A Translator's Handbook on the Book of Psalms. New York: UBS Handbook Series.

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Zwickel, Wolfgang. 2017. The Iconography of Emotions in the Ancient Near East and in Ancient Egypt, in Visualizing Emotions in the Ancient Near East. Edited by Sara Kipfer. Fribourg: Academic Press Fribourg.