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About the Discourse Layer

Our Discourse Layer includes four additional layers of analysis:

Participant analysis
Macrosyntax
Speech act analysis
Emotional analysis

For more information on our method of analysis, click the expandable explanation button at the beginning of each layer.

Participant Analysis

What is Participant Analysis?

Participant Analysis focuses on the characters in the psalm and asks, “Who are the main participants (or characters) in this psalm, and what are they saying or doing? It is often helpful for understanding literary structure, speaker identification, etc.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Participant Analysis Creator Guidelines.

There are 4 participants/characters in Psalm 44:

Profile List

Leader/Psalmist

"The Korahites" (v. 1)

Physical might

"My sword" (v. 7)

Israel

"Jacob" (v. 5)

"Your people" (v. 13)

Physical might

"Our armies" (v. 10)

Body parts

"Our heart" (v. 19)

"Our steps" (v. 19)

"Our soul" (v. 26)

"Our belly" (v. 26)

Israel's ancestors

Physical might

"Their power" (v. 4)

God

"My king" (v. 5)

"Lord" (v. 24)

God's power

"Your strength" (v. 3)

"Your right hand" (v. 4)

"Your power" (v. 4)

"The light of your countenance" (v. 4)

Enemies

"The nations" (v. 3)

"People groups" (v. 3)

"Adversaries" (v. 6)

"Those who rise against us >> adversaries" (v. 6)

"Those who hate us >> enemies" (v. 8)

"Neighbors" (v. 14)

"Those who surround us" (v. 14)

"Taunter and reviler >> reviling taunter" (v. 17)

"Enemy and avenger >> vengeful enemy" (v. 17)

Experience of shame

"Shame" (v. 16)

"Shamefacedness" (v. 16)

Another god

Profile Notes

Leader/Psalmist: The first-person singular references throughout this psalm are best construed as the voice of a liturgical leader (see The Speaker of Ps. 44:5, 7, and 16). According to the superscription of v. 1, this is best identified as the collective voice of the leadership group descended from Korah.
Israel: While constituting a distinct participant (see The Speaker of Ps. 44:5, 7, and 16), the first-person plural references throughout the psalm indicate that the psalmist should be included within this participant set. Thus Israel and the psalmist are here presented as related participants.
Non-Agentive Participants - Physical might / Physical might / Body parts / Physical might / God's power / Experience of shame: While not agentive participants per se, included in this list of participants are inanimate entities personified as performing relational actions, or entities representing a metonymy for an agentive participant.
Israel's ancestors: By recounting God's past dealings with their ancestors, Israel can look ahead to future continuation of such works (Craigie 2004, 333). Based on this continuity of experience, it would be plausible to combine Israel and Israel's ancestors into a single participant set. However, it seems that Israel's ancestors play a sufficiently distinct relational role to warrant treating them as a separate participant.

Text (Hebrew)	Verse	Text (CBC) The Close-but-clear translation (CBC) exists to provide a window into the Hebrew text according to how we understand its syntax and word-to-phrase-level semantics. It is designed to be "close" to the Hebrew, while still being "clear." Specifically, the CBC encapsulates and reflects the following layers of analysis: grammar, lexical semantics, phrase-level semantics, and verbal semantics. It does not reflect our analysis of the discourse or of poetics. It is not intended to be used as a stand-alone translation or base text, but as a supplement to Layer-by-Layer materials to help users make full use of these resources.
לַמְנַצֵּ֬חַ לִבְנֵי־קֹ֬רַח מַשְׂכִּֽיל׃	1a	For the director. By the Korahites. A maskil.
אֱלֹהִ֤ים ׀ בְּאָזְנֵ֬ינוּ שָׁמַ֗עְנוּ	2a	God, we have heard [it] with our ears—
אֲבוֹתֵ֥ינוּ סִפְּרוּ־לָ֑נוּ	2b	Our ancestors have recounted to us
פֹּ֥עַל פָּעַ֥לְתָּ בִֽ֝ימֵיהֶ֗ם	2c	the deeds which you did in their times—
בִּ֣ימֵי קֶֽדֶם׃	2d	in times long ago.
אַתָּ֤ה ׀ יָדְךָ֡ גּוֹיִ֣ם ה֭וֹרַשְׁתָּ וַתִּטָּעֵ֑ם	3a	You, by your strength, dispossessed nations, and then you planted them.
תָּרַ֥ע לְ֝אֻמִּ֗ים וַֽתְּשַׁלְּחֵֽם׃	3b	You would afflict the people groups, and then you would set them free.
כִּ֤י לֹ֣א בְחַרְבָּ֡ם יָ֥רְשׁוּ אָ֗רֶץ	4a	For they did not take possession of the land by means of their sword;
וּזְרוֹעָם֮ לֹא־הוֹשִׁ֪יעָ֫ה לָּ֥מוֹ	4b	nor did their power give victory for them.
כִּֽי־יְמִֽינְךָ֣ וּ֭זְרוֹעֲךָ וְא֥וֹר פָּנֶ֗יךָ	4c	But rather your right hand, and your power, and the light of your countenance [gave the victory];
כִּ֣י רְצִיתָֽם׃	4d	for you were pleased with them.
אַתָּה־הוּא מַלְכִּי אֱלֹהָי	5a	You are my king, my God,
מְצַוֶּה* יְשׁוּעוֹת יַעֲקֹב*	5b	commanding victory for Jacob!
בְּ֭ךָ צָרֵ֣ינוּ נְנַגֵּ֑חַ	6a	With you, we can gore our adversaries;
בְּ֝שִׁמְךָ֗ נָב֥וּס קָמֵֽינוּ׃	6b	under your authority, we can tread down our enemies.
כִּ֤י לֹ֣א בְקַשְׁתִּ֣י אֶבְטָ֑ח	7a	Indeed, I cannot trust in my bow,
וְ֝חַרְבִּ֗י לֹ֣א תוֹשִׁיעֵֽנִי׃	7b	nor can my sword give me victory.
כִּ֣י ה֭וֹשַׁעְתָּנוּ מִצָּרֵ֑ינוּ	8a	But rather you delivered us from our adversaries;
וּמְשַׂנְאֵ֥ינוּ הֱבִישֽׁוֹתָ׃	8b	and you put our enemies to shame.
בֵּֽ֭אלֹהִים הִלַּלְ֣נוּ כָל־הַיּ֑וֹם	9a	We have been boasting in God all day long,
וְשִׁמְךָ֓ ׀ לְעוֹלָ֖ם נוֹדֶ֣ה סֶֽלָה׃	9b	and we will keep declaring your name forever. Selah.
אַף־זָ֭נַחְתָּ וַתַּכְלִימֵ֑נוּ	10a	Even so, you have rejected [us]— that is, you have put us to shame.
וְלֹא־תֵ֝צֵ֗א בְּצִבְאוֹתֵֽינוּ׃	10b	And you do not go forth with our armies.
תְּשִׁיבֵ֣נוּ אָ֭חוֹר מִנִּי־צָ֑ר	11a	You make us retreat before the adversary,
וּ֝מְשַׂנְאֵ֗ינוּ שָׁ֣סוּ לָֽמוֹ׃	11b	and our enemies have plundered for themselves.
תִּ֭תְּנֵנוּ כְּצֹ֣אן מַאֲכָ֑ל	12a	You give us up as sheep for consumption,
וּ֝בַגּוֹיִ֗ם זֵרִיתָֽנוּ׃	12b	and you have scattered us among the nations.
תִּמְכֹּֽר־עַמְּךָ֥ בְלֹא־ה֑וֹן	13a	You sell your people without compensation,
וְלֹ֥א־רִ֝בִּ֗יתָ בִּמְחִירֵיהֶֽם׃	13b	and you have not made a profit by them.
תְּשִׂימֵ֣נוּ חֶ֭רְפָּה לִשְׁכֵנֵ֑ינוּ	14a	You turn us into an object of scorn to our neighbors—
לַ֥עַג וָ֝קֶ֗לֶס לִסְבִיבוֹתֵֽינוּ׃	14b	An object of scornful derision to those who surround us.
תְּשִׂימֵ֣נוּ מָ֭שָׁל בַּגּוֹיִ֑ם	15a	You turn us into a parable among the nations—
מְנֽוֹד־רֹ֝֗אשׁ בַּלְאֻמִּים	15b	An object of pity among the people groups.
כָּל־הַ֭יּוֹם כְּלִמָּתִ֣י נֶגְדִּ֑י	16a	All day long, my shame is before me,
וּבֹ֖שֶׁת פָּנַ֣י כִּסָּֽתְנִי׃	16b	and my shamefacedness has covered me,
מִ֭קּוֹל מְחָרֵ֣ף וּמְגַדֵּ֑ף	17a	because of the voice of the reviling taunter,
מִפְּנֵ֥י א֝וֹיֵ֗ב וּמִתְנַקֵּֽם׃	17b	because of the vengeful enemy.
כָּל־זֹ֣את בָּ֭אַתְנוּ וְלֹ֣א שְׁכַחֲנ֑וּךָ	18a	All this has come upon us, even though we have not neglected you;
וְלֹֽא־שִׁ֝קַּ֗רְנוּ בִּבְרִיתֶֽךָ׃	18b	Nor have we broken faith with your covenant.
לֹא־נָס֣וֹג אָח֣וֹר לִבֵּ֑נוּ	19a	Our heart has not backslid—
וַתֵּ֥ט אֲשֻׁרֵ֗ינוּ מִנִּ֥י אָרְחֶֽךָ׃	19b	that is, our steps have not deviated from your path.
כִּ֣י דִ֭כִּיתָנוּ בִּמְק֣וֹם תַּנִּ֑ים	20a	Yet you have crushed us in the place of jackals,
וַתְּכַ֖ס עָלֵ֣ינוּ בְצַלְמָֽוֶת׃	20b	and thus you have covered us with deepest shadow.
אִם־שָׁ֭כַחְנוּ שֵׁ֣ם אֱלֹהֵ֑ינוּ	21a	If we have neglected our God's name—
וַנִּפְרֹ֥שׂ כַּ֝פֵּ֗ינוּ לְאֵ֣ל זָֽר׃	21b	that is, if we had spread our palms in prayer to another god—
הֲלֹ֣א אֱ֭לֹהִים יַֽחֲקָר־זֹ֑את	22a	would not God investigate this,
כִּֽי־ה֥וּא יֹ֝דֵ֗עַ תַּעֲלֻמ֥וֹת לֵֽב׃	22b	since he knows the heart's secrets?
כִּֽי־עָ֭לֶיךָ הֹרַ֣גְנוּ כָל־הַיּ֑וֹם	23a	Yet we have been killed because of you all day long.
נֶ֝חְשַׁ֗בְנוּ כְּצֹ֣אן טִבְחָֽה׃	23b	We are considered as sheep to be slaughtered.
ע֤וּרָה ׀ לָ֖מָּה תִישַׁ֥ן ׀ אֲדֹנָ֑י	24a	Awake! Why do you sleep, Lord?
הָ֝קִ֗יצָה אַל־תִּזְנַ֥ח לָנֶֽצַח׃	24b	Wake up! Do not keep rejecting [us] forever!
לָֽמָּה־פָנֶ֥יךָ תַסְתִּ֑יר	25a	Why are you hiding your countenance?
תִּשְׁכַּ֖ח עָנְיֵ֣נוּ וְֽלַחֲצֵֽנוּ׃	25b	Why are you neglecting our affliction and oppression?
כִּ֤י שָׁ֣חָה לֶעָפָ֣ר נַפְשֵׁ֑נוּ	26a	For our soul has sunk down into the dust;
דָּבְקָ֖ה לָאָ֣רֶץ בִּטְנֵֽנוּ׃	26b	our belly clings to the earth.
ק֭וּמָֽה עֶזְרָ֣תָה לָּ֑נוּ	27a	Arise to our aid,
וּ֝פְדֵ֗נוּ לְמַ֣עַן חַסְדֶּֽךָ׃	27b	and redeem us because of your faithfulness!

Notes

v. 3a: you dispossessed or your strength dispossessed?

Most modern translations render אַתָּה "you" as the subject of the verb הוֹרַשְׁתָּ "dispossessed," with יָדְךָ "your hand >> your strength" functioning as an adverbial accusative (i.e., "You dispossessed the nations by your hand"; cf. GKC §144l–m). However, the LXX renders יָדְךָ as the verb's subject (ἡ χείρ σου ἔθνη ἐξωλέθρευσεν; "your hand destroyed nations," NETS).
In favor of taking God as the subject of this clause, the 2ms pronoun אַתָּה agrees in gender and number with the verb הוֹרַשְׁתָּ.
However, it is preferable to understand God's strength as the subject of this clause. In Hebrew poetry, when nouns expressing parts of an individual are followed by a first- or second-person suffix, they can be taken as equivalent to the individuals themselves, and are predicated with a verb that agrees in person with the suffix (cf. Ps 57:5; JM §151c). Here in v. 3, if יָדְךָ functions as the subject, then the 2ms verb הוֹרַשְׁתָּ would agree with its 2ms suffix. This would explain the LXX rendering, which recasts the verb into a third-person form: ἡ χείρ σου ἔθνη ἐξωλέθρευσεν ("your hand destroyed nations," NETS). This understanding of the clause would also imply that אַתָּה is left-dislocated (i.e., "as for you, your hand..."). For a discussion on the function of this left-dislocation, see Macrosyntax notes above.

v. 3b, 3d: Ancestors or nations?

There is some ambiguity as to the referent of the 3mp pronominal suffixes of וַתִּטָּעֵם and וַתְּשַׁלְּחֵם. Most modern translations interpret them as referring to the ancestors of v. 2 (e.g., "... and planted our ancestors... and made our ancestors flourish," NIV; see also ESV, NRSV, NET, CSB). This would require understanding the wayyiqtol verbs, in relation to their respective preceding clauses, as adversative ("but them you planted... but them you set free...," NRSV) or purpose/resultative ("in order to plant them... in order to settle them...," CSB). Alternatively, a temporally sequential reading of the wayyiqtols would suggest that the suffixes refer to the גּוֹיִם "nations" and לְאֻמִּים "peoples" (so NASB95, LSB, KJV).
In favor of taking the suffixes as references to the nations, the masculine plural גּוֹיִם "nations" and לְאֻמִּים "peoples" agree with the suffixes in gender and number, and are nearer syntactically. Furthermore, there is syntactic parallelism in the use of a 2ms verb and a direct object across all four clauses of this verse, suggesting that all four objects are coreferential.
It is preferable to understand the suffixes as references to Israel's ancestors. It has been observed that, in cases where the subject of a verb is specified, but the referent of its object is unspecified, the object will tend to refer back to a previously mentioned, discourse-active subject (de Regt 2020, 12). In v. 3b and 3d, the subject of וַתִּטָּעֵם and וַתְּשַׁלְּחֵם is clearly God, as the 2ms verb forms refer back to the vocative אֱלֹהִים in v. 2. The 3mp suffixes, on the other hand, refer back to the discourse-active subjects of the verb סִפְּרוּ "recounted" in v. 2, viz. אֲבוֹתֵינוּ "our ancestors." As v. 3 describes the content of the recounting, the ancestors remain discourse-active, and are anaphorically recalled using the 3mp suffixes.

Participant Relations Diagram

The relationships among the participants may be abstracted and summarized as follows:

Participant Analysis Summary Distribution

Macrosyntax

What is Macrosyntax?

Macrosyntax Diagram

Legend

Macrosyntax legend
Vocatives	Vocatives are indicated by purple text.
Discourse marker	Discourse markers (such as כִּי, הִנֵּה, לָכֵן) are indicated by orange text.
	The scope governed by the discourse marker is indicated by a dashed orange bracket connecting the discourse marker to its scope.
	The preceding discourse grounding the discourse marker is indicated by a solid orange bracket encompassing the relevant clauses.
Subordinating conjunction	The subordinating conjunction is indicated by teal text.
	Subordination is indicated by a solid teal bracket connecting the subordinating conjunction with the clause to which it is subordinate.
Coordinating conjunction	The coordinating conjunction is indicated by blue text.
	Coordination is indicated by a solid blue line connecting the coordinating clauses.
	Coordination without an explicit conjunction is indicated by a dashed blue line connecting the coordinated clauses.
	Marked topic is indicated by a black dashed rounded rectangle around the marked words.
	The scope of the activated topic is indicated by a black dashed bracket encompassing the relevant clauses.
Marked focus or thetic sentence	Marked focus (if one constituent) or thetic sentences^[1] are indicated by bold text.
	Frame setters^[2] are indicated by a solid gray rounded rectangle around the marked words.
[blank line]	Discourse discontinuity is indicated by a blank line.
[indentation]	Syntactic subordination is indicated by indentation.
	Direct speech is indicated by a solid black rectangle surrounding all relevant clauses.
(text to elucidate the meaning of the macrosyntactic structures)	Within the CBC, any text elucidating the meaning of macrosyntax is indicated in gray text inside parentheses.

If an emendation or revocalization is preferred, that emendation or revocalization will be marked in the Hebrew text of all the visuals.

Emendations/Revocalizations legend
Emended text	Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is indicated by blue asterisks on either side of the emendation.
Revocalized text	Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is indicated by purple asterisks on either side of the revocalization.

(Click diagram to enlarge)

v. 3a אַתָּה: The fronted subject אַתָּה represents a topic shift, and begins a new section of the discourse.
v. 5a: Apart from a debated clause-final vocative (see The Text and Meaning of Ps. 44:5), this verbless clause demonstrates default word order (see Wendland 2002, 63). However, given the combination of a shift to the first-person singular on the suffix of מַלְכִּ֣י, the use of the vocative, and the occurrence of the verbless clause suggests a transition to a new section (Lunn 2006, 243).
v. 9ab: The fronted prepositional phrase בֵּאלֹהִים "in God" represents topic shift in v. 9a. Here the topic shifts from Israel's enemies (vv. 6–8) to God. This is reinforced by the fronted topic שִׁמְךָ in v. 9b. These features, along with סֶלָה in v. 9b (see following note), appear to set off v. 9 as a distinct discourse unit within Ps 44.
v. 9b: While the meaning of סֶלָה is highly debated, its function is likely musical in nature (DCH; TWOT, 627). As such, it is likely signaling a discourse division of some kind.
v. 18a: The fronted subject כָּל־זֹ֣את represents a topic shift. The clause summarizes the preceding situations (which would typically imply God's judgment), then transitions into a new discourse unit that presents the community's innocence.
vv. 21–22: The fronted אֱלֹהִים of v. 22 indicates a shift in topic, which becomes the base of predication for the remainder of the sentence (Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 370). Verse 21 constitutes a syntactically dependent protosis to the apodosis of v. 22. Therefore, vv. 21–22 introduce a new discourse unit, which is further marked by a shift from second-person to third-person references to God.

v. 2a בְּאָזְנֵינוּ: The fronted position of this phrase marks the prepositional modifier as the "dominant focal element," or pivotal informational element of the clause (Lunn 2006, 43, 241). Given the context of the remainder of the psalm, it is plausible that an implied contrast is intended between, on the one hand, past accounts of God's deliverance received בְּאָזְנֵינוּ "with our ears," and on the other hand, the absence of such deliverance in the psalmist's present experience (e.g., "with our eyes").
v. 2b: While אֱלֹהִים is established as the addressee in v. 2a (see previous note), the topic at hand is established in v. 2b with the fronting of אֲבוֹתֵינוּ "our ancestors."
v. 3a אַתָּה יָדְךָ גּוֹיִם: This clause features three elements that are fronted in relation to the verb הוֹרַשְׁתָּ "dispossessed." The first, אַתָּה, represents a topic shift. The second item, יָדְךָ, is fronted to indicate restricting focus (i.e., from a presupposed open set of candidates, God's hand/strength is the only possible selection that leads to a true proposition; Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 366). The third item, גּוֹיִם, is likely fronted for poetic purposes. Accounting for the inserted wayyiqtol clauses in v. 3b and 3d, the fronting of גּוֹיִם forces the verb הוֹרַשְׁתָּ to the end of v. 3a, forming a tail-head linkage with the clause-initial verb תָּרַע in v. 3c.
v. 4a–b: The fronted constituents בְחַרְבָּם "by their sword" (v. 4a) and וּזְרוֹעָם "and their power" (v. 4b) indicate a corrective (or replacing) focus, in which the presupposition underlying the object argument is highlighted in order to be negated and replaced (Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 367; Lunn 2006, 242). The presupposition that physical might brought victory is negated in v. 4a–b, and then replaced with the proposition that God's might brought victory in v. 4c–d.
v. 5a אַתָּה: Unlike the left-dislocated אַתָּה of v. 3a, the clause-initial אַתָּה of v. 5a serves as the subject of a verbless clause (see Method:Grammar Layer note). As such, the position of אַתָּה in v. 5a represents default (unmarked) word order (BHRG §46.2.3.1).
vv. 6–7: Each of the four clauses in these verses begins with a fronted adverbial modifier. Taken together, these fronted elements represent corrective (or replacing) focus, in which a presupposed argument is replaced by another (Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 367). The fronted elements בְּךָ "with you" (v. 6a) and בְּשִׁמְךָ "in your name" (v. 6b) correct and replace an implied presupposition (i.e., "something other than God provides victory"). This presupposition is made explicit with the fronted בְקַשְׁתִּי "in my bow" (v. 7a) and וְחַרְבִּי "and my sword" (v. 7b), resulting in the proposition "bows and swords provide victory." This proposition is negated with לֹא particles, while the contrastive elements of v. 6 provide a corrective (i.e., "it is God [and not weapons] who provides victory").
v. 6a צָרֵינוּ: In addition to the clause-initial prepositional modifier בְּךָ "with you" (see preceding note), this clause features the fronted object צָרֵינוּ "our adversaries." Such "double fronted" constructions could indicate marked focus and topic shift, respectively (cf. van der Merwe and Wendland 2010, 116). However, it is more likely that the fronted צָרֵינוּ is for poetic purposes, as the change in word order creates (apart from the focal prepositional phrases) an object-verb//verb'-object' structure with v. 6b.
v. 8b: While וּמְשַׂנְאֵינוּ "and those who hate us" is fronted in this clause, this is likely for poetic purposes, as the change in word order creates a chiasm with v. 8a.
v. 9b: For the fronted phrase וְשִׁמְךָ "and your name," see note on "Discourse Markers and Divisions," above. This clause also features the fronted phrase לְעוֹלָם "forever," which likely represents scalar focus. The preceding temporal statement ("We boast in God all day long") introduces a presupposed set of temporal options (i.e., "When exactly will this boasting/declaring take place?"); the scalar focus provides an extreme selection among those options ("[even] forever") (Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 369).
v. 11b: While וּמְשַׂנְאֵינוּ "and those who hate us" is fronted in this clause, this is likely for poetic purposes, as the change in word order creates a chiasm with v. 11a.
v. 12b: While the fronted prepositional phrase וּבַגּוֹיִם "and among the nations" could indicate marked focus, it is unclear what the force of such marked focus would be. It seems preferable to see the fronting as poetic, as the change in word order creates a chiasm with v. 12a—a construction that parallels the chiastic pattern in v. 11.
v. 16a: The fronted temporal element כָּל־הַיּוֹם "all day long" indicates marked focus. It is possible that the psalmist is introducing an implicit contrast between Israel's constant shame and its constant (כָּל־הַיּוֹם) worship of God in v. 9.
v. 16b: It is likely that וּבֹשֶׁת פָּנַי is fronted to indicate topic shift. Coupled with the marked focus of v. 16a (see preceding note), this appears to set off a discourse unit that is contrasted with v. 9.
v. 23a עָלֶיךָ: The fronted prepositional phrase עָלֶיךָ indicates exhaustive completive focus. In other words, from an open set of possibilities (completive), the selected element is the only one that leads to a true proposition (exhaustive) (Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 365). In the present context, the fronted עָלֶיךָ indicates, "because of you [and no other possible cause], we are killed..."
v. 25a: While the placement of the direct object פָנֶיךָ "your face" before the verb represents non-default word order, it is possible that this is due to poetic binding. The placement of תַסְתִּיר "you hide" at the end of the clause (and crucially, poetic line) forms a tail-head linkage with the following line-initial 2ms yiqtol תִּשְׁכַּ֖ח in v. 25b.

v. 2a אֱלֹהִים: The clause-initial position of the vocative אֱלֹהִים serves to identify the addressee of the discourse (Kim 2023, 136).
v. 24b: The vocative אֲדֹנָי is likely serving to delimit the end of the clause and signal the end of the poetic line (Miller 2010, 361).

v. 4a: When used as a discourse marker, the particle כִּי can function to "hold the floor" to provide a continuation or elaboration of the preceding discourse (Locatell 2017, 274). As this discourse function likely developed from the use of כִּי as a causal connective, the causal translation of "because/for" is appropriate here (Ibid).
v. 7a: When used as a discourse marker, the particle כִּי can function to "hold the floor" to provide a continuation or elaboration of the preceding discourse (Locatell 2017, 274). As an elaboration of the preceding discourse, a so-called emphatic rendering such as "indeed/in fact" is warranted.
v. 8a: As it governs both clauses of v. 8ab, the particle כִּי could be construed as a discourse marker. However, it has been noted that the lines are sometimes blurred between the use of כִּי as a causal connective on the one hand, and its function as a schematic discourse marker on the other (Locatell 2017, 274). Here, the use of כִּי following a preceding כִּי לֹא clause (v. 7) parallels the adversative כִּי לֹא... כִּי construction of v. 4ac. Thus, it appears that כִּי is functioning as an adversative connective that governs both clauses of v. 8ab, rather than marking a discourse division.
v. 10a: The conjunctive adverb אַף functions as a discourse marker when governing multiple sentences (BHRG §40.14), as it does here. In the present context, אַף could be construed as an adversative (e.g., "nonetheless"; cf. DCH), which would not conform to its prototypical sense of addition (van der Merwe 2009, 270n22). However, it has been noted that in certain cases, אַף behaves similarly to the focus particle גַּם, and introduces an extreme or unexpected entity (cf. Ps 68:19; van der Merwe 2009, 281; Lunn 2006, 69). Applied to the current context, אַף should be read as introducing an unexpected addition, rather than a contrastive adversative. This would be in keeping with the sense of irony that pervades this psalm (see Poetic Features), and could be translated along the lines of "even so" (cf. DCH). While similar in semantic content to the adversative, the use of addition could have the rhetorical effect of heightening the sense of incongruity between the praise of v. 9 and the rejection of v. 10.
v. 20: As it governs both clauses of v. 20ab, the particle כִּי could be construed as a discourse marker. However, such an understanding would entail a continuation or elaboration of the preceding discourse (Locatell 2017, 270), and would be best translated as a causal ("because") or assertive ("in fact, indeed"; Ibid, 274). As this does appear to fit the context of v. 20, it is preferable to view כִּֽי as an adversative. This would conform with the observation that adversative כִּֽי overwhelmingly occurs after a main clause with a negative particle (Ibid, 258)—in this case v. 19a (with v. 19b functioning as an epexegetical statement with implied negation). Thus, it appears that כִּי is functioning as an adversative connective that governs both clauses of v. 20ab, rather than marking a discourse division.
v. 23a כִּי: As the particle כִּי introduces both clauses of v. 23, its function could be construed as a discourse marker that introduces a larger portion of text. However, such an understanding would entail a continuation or elaboration of the preceding discourse (Locatell 2017, 270), and would be best translated as a causal ("because") or assertive ("in fact, indeed"; Ibid, 274). As this does appear to fit the context of v. 23, it is preferable to view כִּֽי as an adversative. This would conform with the observation that adversative כִּֽי overwhelmingly occurs after a main clause with a negative particle (Ibid, 258)—in this case v. 22a. The negative interrogative of v. 22a establishes the community's innocence, while v. 23 introduces the contrastive experience of death, "and yet..."
v. 26a: When used as a discourse marker, the particle כִּי can function to "hold the floor" to provide a continuation or elaboration of the preceding discourse (Locatell 2017, 274). As this discourse function likely developed from the use of כִּי as a causal connective, the causal translation of "because/for" is appropriate here (Ibid).

There are no notes on conjunctions for this psalm.

Speech Act Analysis

What is Speech Act Analysis?

The Speech Act layer presents the text in terms of what it does, following the findings of Speech Act Theory. It builds on the recognition that there is more to communication than the exchange of propositions. Speech act analysis is particularly important when communicating cross-culturally, and lack of understanding can lead to serious misunderstandings, since the ways languages and cultures perform speech acts varies widely.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Speech Act Analysis Creator Guidelines.

Summary Visual
Analysis Chart

Summary Visual

Speech Act Analysis Chart

The following chart is scrollable (left/right; up/down).

Legend

Verse	Hebrew	CBC	Sentence type	Illocution (general)	Illocution with context	Macro speech act	Intended perlocution (Think)	Intended perlocution (Feel)	Intended perlocution (Do)
Verse number and poetic line	Hebrew text	English translation	Declarative, Imperative, or Interrogative Indirect Speech Act: Mismatch between sentence type and illocution type	Assertive, Directive, Expressive, Commissive, or Declaratory Indirect Speech Act: Mismatch between sentence type and illocution type	More specific illocution type with paraphrased context	Illocutionary intent (i.e. communicative purpose) of larger sections of discourse These align with the "Speech Act Summary" headings	What the speaker intends for the address to think	What the speaker intends for the address to feel	What the speaker intends for the address to do

If an emendation or revocalization is preferred, that emendation or revocalization will be marked in the Hebrew text of all the visuals.

Emendations/Revocalizations legend
Emended text	Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is indicated by blue asterisks on either side of the emendation.
Revocalized text	Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is indicated by purple asterisks on either side of the revocalization.

Verse	Text (Hebrew)	Text (CBC) The Close-but-clear translation (CBC) exists to provide a window into the Hebrew text according to how we understand its syntax and word-to-phrase-level semantics. It is designed to be "close" to the Hebrew, while still being "clear." Specifically, the CBC encapsulates and reflects the following layers of analysis: grammar, lexical semantics, phrase-level semantics, and verbal semantics. It does not reflect our analysis of the discourse or of poetics. It is not intended to be used as a stand-alone translation or base text, but as a supplement to Layer-by-Layer materials to help users make full use of these resources.	Sentence type	Illocution (general)	Illocution with context	Macro speech act		Intended perlocution (Think)	Intended perlocution (Feel)	Intended perlocution (Do)	Speech Act Notes
1	לַמְנַצֵּחַ לִבְנֵי־קֹרַח מַשְׂכִּיל	For the director. By the Korahites. A maskil.	Superscription
2	אֱלֹהִים בְּאָזְנֵינוּ שָׁמַעְנוּ	God, we have heard [it] with our ears—	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting the account of God's past deeds.	Praising God for his past deliverances.	Grounding present pleas for deliverance in precedence.	Establishing common ground (knowledge of past events) with God.
	אֲבוֹתֵינוּ סִפְּרוּ־לָנוּ פֹּעַל	Our ancestors have recounted to us the deeds
	פָּעַלְתָּ בִימֵיהֶם בִּימֵי קֶדֶם	which you did in their times—in times long ago
3	אַתָּה יָדְךָ גּוֹיִם הוֹרַשְׁתָּ	You, by your strength, dispossessed nations,	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting God's past deliverances.			Reminding God of past deliverances.	Making God feel obligated to act in accordance with how he treated the previous generations.	Persuading God to act in accordance with past deliverances.
	וַתִּטָּעֵם	and then you planted them.	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting God's past deliverances.
	תָּרַע לְאֻמִּים	You would afflict the people groups,	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting God's past deliverances.
	וַתְּשַׁלְּחֵם	and then you would set them free.	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting God's past deliverances.
4	כִּי לֹא בְחַרְבָּם יָרְשׁוּ אָרֶץ	For they did not take possession of the land by means of their sword;	Declarative	Assertive	Denying human means of deliverances.			Reminding God of his previously manifested character.	Making God feel obligated to act in accordance with his character.	Persuading God to act in accordance to his previously manifested character.
	וּזְרוֹעָם לֹא־הוֹשִׁיעָה לָּמוֹ	nor did their power give victory for them.	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining the means of God's past deliverances.
	כִּי־יְמִינְךָ וּזְרוֹעֲךָ וְאוֹר פָּנֶיךָ	But rather your right hand, and your power, and the light of your countenance [gave the victory];	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining the means of God's past deliverances.
	כִּי רְצִיתָם	for you were pleased with them.	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining the means of God's past deliverances.
5	אַתָּה־הוּא מַלְכִּי אֱלֹהָי	You are my king, my God,	Declarative	Commissive	Submitting to God's authority and power.	Proclaiming commitment to submit to God's kingship.	Claiming expectation of protection from the king.	Reminding God of his relationship with the psalmist (king-subject).	Appeasing the king (God) by submitting to his authority.	Persuading God to act as king on behalf of his subjects.	• To acknowledge God as king is to recognize his authority (see Story Behind). Thus, the declarative statement of this sentence is likely a commitment to submit to that authority (commissive) rather than simply a statement of fact (assertive).
	מְצַוֶּה יְשׁוּעוֹת יַעֲקֹב	commanding victory for Jacob!	Declarative	Commissive	Submitting to God's authority and power.	Proclaiming commitment to submit to God's kingship.			Appeasing the king (God) by submitting to his authority.	Persuading God to act as king on behalf of his subjects.
6	בְּךָ צָרֵינוּ נְנַגֵּחַ	With you, we can gore our adversaries;	Declarative	Assertive	Identifying the true means of deliverance.	Extolling God's power.		Informing God of his people's trust in him.	Making God conscientious for those who trust him.	Persuading God to act on behalf of those who trust him.
	בְּשִׁמְךָ נָבוּס קָמֵינוּ	under your authority, we can tread down our enemies.	Declarative	Assertive	Identifying the true means of deliverance.	Extolling God's power.
7	כִּי לֹא בְקַשְׁתִּי אֶבְטָח	Indeed, I cannot trust in my bow,	Declarative	Expressive	Denying trust in human power.	Expressing confidence in God's power to assist.					• As a statement of the psalmist's psychological state, this declarative sentence serves as an expressive illocution.
	וְחַרְבִּי לֹא תוֹשִׁיעֵנִי	nor can my sword give me victory.	Declarative	Expressive	Denying trust in human power.						• Standing on its own, v. 7b could be construed as an assertive illocution. However, taken in parallel with v. 7a, it likely continues the expression of trust of the preceding line.
8	כִּי הוֹשַׁעְתָּנוּ מִצָּרֵינוּ	But rather you delivered us from our adversaries;	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining the deficiency of human power, in contrast to God's power.
	וּמְשַׂנְאֵינוּ הֱבִישׁוֹתָ	and you put our enemies to shame.	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining the deficiency of human power, in contrast to God's power.
9	בֵּאלֹהִים הִלַּלְנוּ כָל־הַיּוֹם	We have been boasting in God all day long,	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting previous pattern of praising God.	Proclaiming commitment to praise God.	Grounding pleas for deliverance in fulfillment of covenant obligations.		Pleasing God with worship.	Persuading God to act on behalf of his worshippers.
	וְשִׁמְךָ לְעוֹלָם נוֹדֶה סֶלָה	and we will keep declaring your name forever. Selah.	Declarative	Commissive	Proclaiming future commitment to praise God.	Proclaiming commitment to praise God.			Pleasing God with worship.	Persuading God to act on behalf of his worshippers.	• The prepositional phrase לְעוֹלָם "forever; from now on" makes this statement a commitment to future action (commissive).
10	אַף־זָנַחְתָּ	Even so, you have rejected [us]—	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming God's rejecting as cause of defeat.	Appealing to God's honor among the nations.	Lamenting to provide grounds for pleading.	Informing God of the nation's current predicament.	Making God sympathetic towards his people and indignant towards the enemy nations.	Persuading God to act on behalf of his suffering people.
	וַתַּכְלִימֵנוּ	that is, you have put us to shame.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing military defeat as shameful.
	וְלֹא־תֵצֵא בְּצִבְאוֹתֵינוּ	And you do not go forth with our armies.	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming God's abandoning as cause of military defeat.
11	תְּשִׁיבֵנוּ אָחוֹר מִנִּי־צָר	You make us retreat before the adversary,	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God causes military defeat.
	וּמְשַׂנְאֵינוּ שָׁסוּ לָמוֹ	and our enemies have plundered for themselves.	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God allows plundering.
12	תִּתְּנֵנוּ כְּצֹאן מַאֲכָל	You give us up as sheep for consumption,	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God makes Israel vulnerable as sheep.	Appealing to God's compassion.
	וּבַגּוֹיִם זֵרִיתָנוּ	and you have scattered us among the nations.	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God allows his people's captivity.
13	תִּמְכֹּר־עַמְּךָ בְלֹא־הוֹן	You sell your people without compensation,	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God devalues his people.
	וְלֹא־רִבִּיתָ בִּמְחִירֵיהֶם	and you have not made a profit by them.	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God devalues his people.
14	תְּשִׂימֵנוּ חֶרְפָּה לִשְׁכֵנֵינוּ	You turn us into an object of scorn to our neighbors—	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God causes Israel's humiliation.	Appealing to God's honor among the nations.
	לַעַג וָקֶלֶס לִסְבִיבוֹתֵינוּ	An object of scornful derision to those who surround us.	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God causes Israel's humiliation.
15	תְּשִׂימֵנוּ מָשָׁל בַּגּוֹיִם	You turn us into a parable among the nations—	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God causes Israel's humiliation.
	מְנֽוֹד־רֹ֝֗אשׁ בַּלְאֻמִּים	An object of pity among the people groups.	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God causes Israel's humiliation.
16	כָּל־הַיּוֹם כְּלִמָּתִי נֶגְדִּי	All day long, my shame is before me,	Declarative	Expressive	Lamenting the psalmist's humiliation.
17	וּבֹשֶׁת פָּנַי כִּסָּתְנִי מִקּוֹל מְחָרֵף וּמְגַדֵּף מִפְּנֵי אוֹיֵב וּמִתְנַקֵּם	and my shamefacedness has covered me, because of the voice of the reviling taunter, because of the vengeful enemy.	Declarative	Expressive	Lamenting the psalmist's humiliation.
18	כָּל־זֹאת בָּאַתְנוּ	All this has come upon us,	Declarative	Assertive	Summarizing the situation.	Alerting God to incongruity between covenant expectation and reality.	Protesting God's unprovoked actions against the nation.	Informing God of his people's innocence.	Making God affronted at the nation's unjust treatment.	Convincing God to reverse the nation's situation.
	וְלֹא שְׁכַחֲנוּךָ	even though we have not neglected you;	Declarative	Assertive	Denying guilt of covenant unfaithfulness.
	וְלֹא־שִׁקַּרְנוּ בִּבְרִיתֶךָ	Nor have we broken faith with your covenant.	Declarative	Assertive	Denying guilt of covenant unfaithfulness.
19	לֹא־נָסוֹג אָחוֹר לִבֵּנוּ	Our heart has not backslid—	Declarative	Assertive	Denying guilt of immoral behavior.
	וַתֵּט אֲשֻׁרֵינוּ מִנִּי אָרְחֶךָ	that is, our steps have not deviated from your path.	Declarative	Assertive	Denying guilt of immoral behavior.
20	כִּי דִכִּיתָנוּ בִּמְקוֹם תַּנִּים	Yet you have crushed us in the place of jackals,	Declarative	Assertive	Accusing God of causing Israel's desolation.			Informing God of the unjust treatment of his people.	Making God sympathetic towards his people.	Persuading God to act on behalf of his suffering people.
	וַתְּכַס עָלֵינוּ בְצַלְמָוֶת	and thus you have covered us with deepest shadow.	Declarative	Assertive	Accusing God of causing Israel's desolation.			Informing God of the unjust treatment of his people.	Making God sympathetic towards his people.	Persuading God to act on behalf of his suffering people.
21	אִם־שָׁכַחְנוּ שֵׁם אֱלֹהֵינוּ	If we have neglected our God's name—	Interrogative	Assertive	Arguing that the nation's guilt cannot be proven.			Convincing God that the nation is innocent.	Making God affronted at the nation's unjust treatment.	Convincing God to reverse the nation's situation.	• As a rhetorical question, the interrogative sentence serves as an assertive argument of the nation's innocence. • Whereas vv. 18–19 inform God of the people's innocence by means of statements of fact, the rhetorical appeal to logic here attempts to convince God of the truthfulness of this claim.
	וַנִּפְרֹשׂ כַּפֵּינוּ לְאֵל זָר	that is, if we had spread our palms in prayer to another god—
22	הֲלֹא אֱלֹהִים יַחֲקָר־זֹאת	could not God investigate this,
	כִּי־הוּא יֹדֵעַ תַּעֲלֻמוֹת לֵב	since he knows the heart's secrets?
23	כִּי־עָלֶיךָ הֹרַגְנוּ כָל־הַיּוֹם	Yet we have been killed because of you all day long.	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God causes Israel's threat of death.				Making God sympathetic towards his people.	Persuading God to act on behalf of his suffering people.
	נֶחְשַׁבְנוּ כְּצֹאן טִבְחָה	We are considered as sheep to be slaughtered.	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God causes Israel's threat of death.				Making God sympathetic towards his people.	Persuading God to act on behalf of his suffering people.
24	עוּרָה	Awake!	Imperative	Directive	Pleading for God to take action.	Pleading for God to take action.	Pleading for God's deliverance.		Making God indignant at the suggestion that he is sleeping.	Persuading God to take action.
	לָמָּה תִישַׁן אֲדֹנָי	Why do you sleep, Lord?	Interrogative	Expressive	Accusing God of inaction.						• Depicting God as asleep is an emotional expression, rather than a declaration of theological fact (Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 800).
	הָקִיצָה	Wake up!	Imperative	Directive	Pleading for God to take action.
	אַל־תִּזְנַח לָנֶצַח	Do not keep rejecting [us] forever!	Imperative	Directive	Pleading for God's favor.
25	לָמָּה־פָנֶיךָ תַסְתִּיר	Why are you hiding your countenance?	Interrogative	Expressive	Accusing God of witholding his favor.	Appealing to God's relationship with his people.			Making God sympathetic towards his people's spiritual depression.	Persuading God to act on behalf of his suffering people.	• Similar to the image of sleeping (see note on v. 24b), the depiction of God hiding his face is an emotional expression, rather than a statement of theological fact.
	תִּשְׁכַּח עָנְיֵנוּ וְלַחֲצֵנוּ	Why are you neglecting our affliction and oppression?	Interrogative	Expressive	Accusing God of neglect.	Appealing to God's relationship with his people.					• Similar to the image of sleeping (see note on v. 24b), the depiction of God's neglect is an emotional expression, rather than a statement of theological fact.
26	כִּי שָׁחָה לֶעָפָר נַפְשֵׁנוּ	For our soul has sunk down into the dust;	Declarative	Expressive	Lamenting the nation's spiritual depression.	Appealing to God's compassion.					• Rather than a depiction of a physical situation, the reference to נֶפֶשׁ "soul" likely points to a spiritual/emotional reality. Thus, the declarative statement functions as an expressive illocution.
	דָּבְקָה לָאָרֶץ בִּטְנֵנוּ	our belly clings to the earth.	Declarative	Expressive	Lamenting the nation's spiritual depression.	Appealing to God's compassion.
27	קוּמָה עֶזְרָתָה לָּנוּ	Arise to our aid,	Imperative	Directive	Pleading for God's assistance.	Pleading for God's deliverance.		Reminding God of his covenant relationship with his people.		Persuading God to act on behalf of his covenant people.
	וּפְדֵנוּ לְמַעַן חַסְדֶּךָ	and redeem us because of your faithfulness!	Imperative	Directive	Pleading for God's redemption.	Pleading for God's deliverance.		Reminding God of his covenant relationship with his people.		Persuading God to act on behalf of his covenant people.

Emotional Analysis

What is Emotional Analysis?

This layer explores the emotional dimension of the biblical text and seeks to uncover the clues within the text itself that are part of the communicative intent of its author. The goal of this analysis is to chart the basic emotional tone and/or progression of the psalm.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Emotional Analysis Creator Guidelines.

Analysis
Think-Feel-Do

Emotional Analysis Chart

Legend

If an emendation or revocalization is preferred, that emendation or revocalization will be marked in the Hebrew text of all the visuals.

Emendations/Revocalizations legend
Emended text	Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is indicated by blue asterisks on either side of the emendation.
Revocalized text	Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is indicated by purple asterisks on either side of the revocalization.

Verse	Text (Hebrew)	Text (CBC) The Close-but-clear translation (CBC) exists to provide a window into the Hebrew text according to how we understand its syntax and word-to-phrase-level semantics. It is designed to be "close" to the Hebrew, while still being "clear." Specifically, the CBC encapsulates and reflects the following layers of analysis: grammar, lexical semantics, phrase-level semantics, and verbal semantics. It does not reflect our analysis of the discourse or of poetics. It is not intended to be used as a stand-alone translation or base text, but as a supplement to Layer-by-Layer materials to help users make full use of these resources.	The Psalmist Feels	Emotional Analysis Notes
1	לַמְנַצֵּחַ לִבְנֵי־קֹרַח מַשְׂכִּיל	For the director. By the Korahites. A maskil.
2	אֱלֹהִים בְּאָזְנֵינוּ שָׁמַעְנוּ	God, we have heard [it] with our ears—	• Confident that the report heard with their ears is true. • Hopeful that God's past actions will continue to the present.	• For the applicability of God's past actions to the present, see Story Behind notes. • The phrase בְּאָזְנֵינוּ "with our ears" (v. 2a) is non-propositional, and thus not strictly necessary from an informational standpoint. Its inclusion likely highlights the assuredness of the testimony, as it is based on firsthand experience ("we heard it for ourselves").
	אֲבוֹתֵינוּ סִפְּרוּ־לָנוּ פֹּעַל	Our ancestors have recounted to us the deeds
	פָּעַלְתָּ בִימֵיהֶם בִּימֵי קֶדֶם	which you did in their times—in times long ago
3	אַתָּה יָדְךָ גּוֹיִם הוֹרַשְׁתָּ	You, by your strength, dispossessed nations,	• Confident in God's strength.
	וַתִּטָּעֵם	and then you planted them.	• Confident in God's care for his covenant people.	• For the associations between "planting" and God's promises of covenant blessing, see Story Behind notes.
	תָּרַע לְאֻמִּים	You would afflict the people groups,	• Impressed by God's power to afflict people groups.
	וַתְּשַׁלְּחֵם	and then you would set them free.	• Grateful that God set his people free.	• For the background of "you set them free," see Story Behind notes.
4	כִּי לֹא בְחַרְבָּם יָרְשׁוּ אָרֶץ	For they did not take possession of the land by means of their sword;	• Confident in God's power.
	וּזְרוֹעָם לֹא־הוֹשִׁיעָה לָּמוֹ	nor did their power give victory for them.	• Confident in God's power.
	כִּי־יְמִינְךָ וּזְרוֹעֲךָ וְאוֹר פָּנֶיךָ	But rather your right hand, and your power, and the light of your countenance [gave the victory];	• Confident in God's strength. • Hopeful for God's favor.	• For the association between "the light of your countenance" and favor, see Story Behind notes.
	כִּי רְצִיתָם	for you were pleased with them.	• Confident in God's strength. • Hopeful for God's favor.
5	אַתָּה־הוּא מַלְכִּי אֱלֹהָי	You are my king, my God,	• Reverent in light of God's authority and power. • Hopeful that God will deliver Israel.
	מְצַוֶּה יְשׁוּעוֹת יַעֲקֹב	commanding victory for Jacob!
6	בְּךָ צָרֵינוּ נְנַגֵּחַ	With you, we can gore our adversaries;	• Confident in God's ability to help Israel. • Impressed by God's power to gore adversaries.
	בְּשִׁמְךָ נָבוּס קָמֵינוּ	under your authority, we can tread down our enemies.	• Confident in God's ability to defeat enemies. • Reverent in light of God's authority. • Impressed by God's power to tread down enemies.
7	כִּי לֹא בְקַשְׁתִּי אֶבְטָח	Indeed, I cannot trust in my bow,	• Confident in God's power.
	וְחַרְבִּי לֹא תוֹשִׁיעֵנִי	nor can my sword give me victory.	• Confident in God's power.
8	כִּי הוֹשַׁעְתָּנוּ מִצָּרֵינוּ	But rather you delivered us from our adversaries;	• Confident in God's power.
	וּמְשַׂנְאֵינוּ הֱבִישׁוֹתָ	and you put our enemies to shame.	• Confident in God's power. • Feeling superior to humiliated enemies.
9	בֵּאלֹהִים הִלַּלְנוּ כָל־הַיּוֹם	We have been boasting in God all day long,	• Triumphant in light of God's deeds. • Determined to praise God all day long. • Self-confident in having a correct relational orientation toward God.	• The verb הלל "to boast" refers to pride and satisfaction in God (see Story Behind notes). In the present context, this is most likely related to the deliverance described in v. 8, and thus the boasting reflects a sense of triumph. • The psalmist's commitment to worship reflects the nation's covenant faithfulness, which will be expanded upon further in vv. 18–23. This forms the basis of self-confidence in the later protestation of Israel's innocence.
	וְשִׁמְךָ לְעוֹלָם נוֹדֶה סֶלָה	and we will keep declaring your name forever. Selah.	• Reverent in light of God's character (name). • Determined to praise God forever. • Self-confident in having a correct relational orientation toward God.	• The psalmist's commitment to worship reflects the nation's covenant faithfulness, which will be expanded upon further in vv. 18–23. This forms the basis of self-confidence in the later protestation of Israel's innocence.
10	אַף־זָנַחְתָּ	Even so, you have rejected [us]—	• Distressed by God's apparent rejection of Israel.	• The stark contrast between Israel's praise (v. 9) and God's rejection (v. 10) is likely a rhetorical means of heightening the emotional impact of the rejection (see Poetic Features). This would support a higher-activation negative emotion such as distress.
	וַתַּכְלִימֵנוּ	that is, you have put us to shame.	• Ashamed by Israel's defeat.
	וְלֹא־תֵצֵא בְּצִבְאוֹתֵינוּ	And you do not go forth with our armies.	• Distressed by God's seeming abandonment of Israel.
11	תְּשִׁיבֵנוּ אָחוֹר מִנִּי־צָר	You make us retreat before the adversary,	• Despondent in light of military defeat.
	וּמְשַׂנְאֵינוּ שָׁסוּ לָמוֹ	and our enemies have plundered for themselves.	• Despondent in light of enemy military plundering.
12	תִּתְּנֵנוּ כְּצֹאן מַאֲכָל	You give us up as sheep for consumption,	• Despondent in light of sheep-like powerlessness.
	וּבַגּוֹיִם זֵרִיתָנוּ	and you have scattered us among the nations.	• Ashamed in light of experience of captivity.
13	תִּמְכֹּר־עַמְּךָ בְלֹא־הוֹן	You sell your people without compensation,	• Ashamed by sense of worthlessness at being given up without compensation.
	וְלֹא־רִבִּיתָ בִּמְחִירֵיהֶם	and you have not made a profit by them.	• Ashamed by sense of worthlessness at being given up for no profit.
14	תְּשִׂימֵנוּ חֶרְפָּה לִשְׁכֵנֵינוּ	You turn us into an object of scorn to our neighbors—	• Ashamed by public humilation among neighboring nations.
	לַעַג וָקֶלֶס לִסְבִיבוֹתֵינוּ	An object of scornful derision to those who surround us.	• Ashamed by public humilation among neighboring nations.
15	תְּשִׂימֵנוּ מָשָׁל בַּגּוֹיִם	You turn us into a parable among the nations—	• Ashamed for being pitied by nations.
	מְנֽוֹד־רֹ֝֗אשׁ בַּלְאֻמִּים	An object of pity among the people groups.	• Ashamed for being pitied by nations.
16	כָּל־הַיּוֹם כְּלִמָּתִי נֶגְדִּי	All day long, my shame is before me,	• Despondent due to being shamed all day long.
17	וּבֹשֶׁת פָּנַי כִּסָּתְנִי מִקּוֹל מְחָרֵף וּמְגַדֵּף מִפְּנֵי אוֹיֵב וּמִתְנַקֵּם	and my shamefacedness has covered me, because of the voice of the reviling taunter, because of the vengeful enemy.	• Ashamed by public humilation before reviling taunters and vengeful enemies.
18	כָּל־זֹאת בָּאַתְנוּ	All this has come upon us,
	וְלֹא שְׁכַחֲנוּךָ	even though we have not neglected you;	• Taken aback by the incongruity between covenant expectation and reality.
	וְלֹא־שִׁקַּרְנוּ בִּבְרִיתֶךָ	Nor have we broken faith with your covenant.	• Taken aback by the incongruity between covenant expectation and reality.
19	לֹא־נָסוֹג אָחוֹר לִבֵּנוּ	Our heart has not backslid—	• Taken aback by the incongruity between covenant expectation and reality.
	וַתֵּט אֲשֻׁרֵינוּ מִנִּי אָרְחֶךָ	that is, our steps have not deviated from your path.	• Taken aback by the incongruity between covenant expectation and reality.
20	כִּי דִכִּיתָנוּ בִּמְקוֹם תַּנִּים	Yet you have crushed us in the place of jackals,	• Taken aback by the incongruity between covenant expectation and reality. • Despondent in light of living in a devastated place of jackals.
	וַתְּכַס עָלֵינוּ בְצַלְמָוֶת	and thus you have covered us with deepest shadow.	• Taken aback by the incongruity between covenant expectation and reality. • Afraid from being covered with deepest shadow.	• The term צַלְמָוֶת is used in contexts that imply sorrow, fear, or danger (NIDOTTE, 3:807).
21	אִם־שָׁכַחְנוּ שֵׁם אֱלֹהֵינוּ	If we have neglected our God's name—	• Taken aback by the incongruity between covenant expectation and reality.
	וַנִּפְרֹשׂ כַּפֵּינוּ לְאֵל זָר	that is, if we had spread our palms in prayer to another god—
22	הֲלֹא אֱלֹהִים יַחֲקָר־זֹאת	could not God investigate this,
	כִּי־הוּא יֹדֵעַ תַּעֲלֻמוֹת לֵב	since he knows the heart's secrets?
23	כִּי־עָלֶיךָ הֹרַגְנוּ כָל־הַיּוֹם	Yet we have been killed because of you all day long.	• Taken aback that God causes the threat of death. • Afraid of the threat of death.
	נֶחְשַׁבְנוּ כְּצֹאן טִבְחָה	We are considered as sheep to be slaughtered.	• Despondent in light of sheep-like powerlessness.
24	עוּרָה	Awake!	• Desperate for God to take action. • Distressed by God's seeming inaction.	• The one-word imperatival clause עוּרָה suggests an exclamatory, high-activation emotional state.
	לָמָּה תִישַׁן אֲדֹנָי	Why do you sleep, Lord?	• Distressed by God's seeming inaction.
	הָקִיצָה	Wake up!	• Desperate for God to take action. • Distressed by God's seeming inaction.	• The one-word imperatival clause הָקִיצָה suggests an exclamatory, high-activation emotional state.
	אַל־תִּזְנַח לָנֶצַח	Do not keep rejecting [us] forever!	• Desperate for God to reverse his seeming rejection of his people.
25	לָמָּה־פָנֶיךָ תַסְתִּיר	Why are you hiding your countenance?	• Despondent in light of God's seeming disfavor.
	תִּשְׁכַּח עָנְיֵנוּ וְלַחֲצֵנוּ	Why are you neglecting our affliction and oppression?	• Despondent in light of God's seeming neglect.
26	כִּי שָׁחָה לֶעָפָר נַפְשֵׁנוּ	For our soul has sunk down into the dust;	• Depressed in light of defeat and humiliation.
	דָּבְקָה לָאָרֶץ בִּטְנֵנוּ	our belly clings to the earth.	• Depressed in light of defeat and humiliation.
27	קוּמָה עֶזְרָתָה לָּנוּ	Arise to our aid,	• Desperate for God to take action.
	וּפְדֵנוּ לְמַעַן חַסְדֶּךָ	and redeem us because of your faithfulness!	• Desperate for God to redeem his people. • Hopeful in light of God's faithfulness.

Summary Visual

(Click visual to enlarge).

Bibliography

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Footnotes

↑ When the entire utterance is new/unexpected, it is a thetic sentence (often called "sentence focus"). See our Creator Guidelines for more information on topic and focus.
↑ Frame setters are any orientational constituent – typically, but not limited to, spatio-temporal adverbials – function to "limit the applicability of the main predication to a certain restricted domain" and "indicate the general type of information that can be given" in the clause nucleus (Krifka & Musan 2012: 31-32). In previous scholarship, they have been referred to as contextualizing constituents (see, e.g., Buth (1994), “Contextualizing Constituents as Topic, Non-Sequential Background and Dramatic Pause: Hebrew and Aramaic evidence,” in E. Engberg-Pedersen, L. Falster Jakobsen and L. Schack Rasmussen (eds.) Function and expression in Functional Grammar. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 215-231; Buth (2023), “Functional Grammar and the Pragmatics of Information Structure for Biblical Languages,” in W. A. Ross & E. Robar (eds.) Linguistic Theory and the Biblical Text. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, 67-116), but this has been conflated with the function of topic. In brief: sentence topics, belonging to the clause nucleus, are the entity or event about which the clause provides a new predication; frame setters do not belong in the clause nucleus and rather provide a contextual orientation by which to understand the following clause.

[1] When the entire utterance is new/unexpected, it is a thetic sentence (often called "sentence focus"). See our Creator Guidelines for more information on topic and focus.

[2] Frame setters are any orientational constituent – typically, but not limited to, spatio-temporal adverbials – function to "limit the applicability of the main predication to a certain restricted domain" and "indicate the general type of information that can be given" in the clause nucleus (Krifka & Musan 2012: 31-32). In previous scholarship, they have been referred to as contextualizing constituents (see, e.g., Buth (1994), “Contextualizing Constituents as Topic, Non-Sequential Background and Dramatic Pause: Hebrew and Aramaic evidence,” in E. Engberg-Pedersen, L. Falster Jakobsen and L. Schack Rasmussen (eds.) Function and expression in Functional Grammar. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 215-231; Buth (2023), “Functional Grammar and the Pragmatics of Information Structure for Biblical Languages,” in W. A. Ross & E. Robar (eds.) Linguistic Theory and the Biblical Text. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, 67-116), but this has been conflated with the function of topic. In brief: sentence topics, belonging to the clause nucleus, are the entity or event about which the clause provides a new predication; frame setters do not belong in the clause nucleus and rather provide a contextual orientation by which to understand the following clause.

[1]

[2]

Psalm 44 Discourse

Contents

Book 1

Book 2

Book 3

Book 4

Book 5

Sheep to Be Slaughtered

Psalm 44

About the Discourse Layer

Participant Analysis

Profile List

Profile Notes

Notes

Participant Relations Diagram

Participant Analysis Summary Distribution

Macrosyntax

Macrosyntax Diagram

Speech Act Analysis

Summary Visual

Speech Act Analysis Chart

Emotional Analysis

Emotional Analysis Chart

Summary Visual

Bibliography

Footnotes