Psalm 44 Semantics

Psalm Overview

• Grammar
• Semantics
• Story behind the Psalm
• Discourse
• Poetics

About the Semantics Layer

Semantics is the study of how language is used to represent meaning. The goal of semantic analysis for interpreting and translating the Bible is to understand the meaning of words and how they relate to each other in context. We want to understand what is implicit about word meaning – and thus assumed by the original audience – and make it explicit – and thus clear for us who are removed by time, language, and culture. The semantics layer is composed of three major branches: lexical semantics, phrase-level semantics and verbal semantics. (Click 'Expand' to the right for more information.)

About Lexical Semantics

One major branch of semantic study is lexical semantics, which refers to the study of word meanings. It examines semantic range (=possible meanings of a word), the relationship between words (e.g. synonymy, hyponymy), as well as the relationship between words and larger concepts (conceptual domains). One component of our approach involves not only the study of the Hebrew word meaning, but also of our own assumptions about word meaning in modern languages. Because the researcher necessarily starts with their own cultural assumptions (in our case, those of Western-trained scholars), this part of the analysis should be done afresh for every culture.

For a detailed description of our method, see the Lexical Semantics Creator Guidelines.

About Phrase-level Semantics

The Phrase-level Semantics layer analyses the meaning of syntactic units which are larger than the level of the word and smaller than the level of the clause. Specifically, this layer analyses the meaning of prepositional phrases (e.g., לְאִישׁ), construct phrases (e.g., אִישׁ אֱלֹהִים), phrases formed by a coordinating waw conjunction (e.g., אִישׁ וְאִשָּׁה) and noun phrases which consist of a noun plus a determiner (e.g., הָאִישׁ) or a quantifier (e.g., כֹּל אִישׁ).

For a detailed description of our method, see the Phrase-level Semantics Creator Guidelines.

About Verbal Semantics

This sub-layer focuses on the relationship between verbs, time and modality. These are important categories for interpretation and translation, and how one analyses a verb can have a significant effect on how it is rendered. This sub-layer has been through several iterations, as it strives to accomplish two things: (1) Transparency for the native Hebrew structures, and (2) Transparency for the interpretation necessary to translate the verbal semantics into other languages.

For a detailed description of our method, see the Verbal Semantics Creator Guidelines.

Semantics Visuals for Psalm 44

Lexical and Phrase-level Semantics Diagram

(For more information, click "Phrase-level Legend" below.)

Phrase-level Legend

Visualization	Description
	The prepositional phrase is indicated by a solid green oval.
	The construct chain is indicated by a solid yellow oval.
	When the conjunction ו appears at the phrase-level (not clause-level), it is indicated by a solid light purple oval.
	The article is indicated by a solid blue oval.

• See our growing collection of Venn Diagrams, not only for Psalm 44, but for all of the psalms.
• See SDBH on Psalm 44.

v. 1

• The meaning of מַשְׂכִּיל: The sense of this term is not fully understood. It is often associated with the hiphil form of the verb שׂכל "to instruct, teach" (cf. Ps 32:1, 8, which feature מַשְׂכִּֽיל in v. 1, and אַשְׂכִּילְךָ "I will instruct you" in v. 8). Thus the LXX translates 44:1 with εἰς σύνεσιν "regarding understanding" (NETS). However, given the overarching theme of lament in Ps 44, it is difficult to see how the psalm qualifies as instruction. It is also possible to render מַשְׂכִּיל as "meditation" or "skillful psalm" (Craigie 2004, 264). To further complicate matters, it is unclear as to whether the term refers to the psalm's musical accompaniment or its content (Ibid). Another possibility is that מַשְׂכִּיל should be associated with the rare II-שׂכל "to lay over cross-wise" (HALOT; cf. Gen 48:14), with the liturgical sense of alternating chants, or antiphony (Koenen 1991, 112). In the absence of definitive conclusions, most modern translations transliterate the term as maskil.
• לַ(הַ)מְנַצֵּחַ ("for the [musical] director"): Inclusiveness - class. The article here can designate “a class of persons or things that are definite in themselves” (BHRG, §24.4.4[4]). If, however, there was only one director in Israel at any given time, it could be construed as a situationally unique referent (IBHS, §13.5.1b).
• The לְ in לִ-בְנֵי־קֹרַח ("by the Korahites") is the ל of authorship (lamed auctoris) is a subset of the quasi-locational use of the lamed (IBHS, §11.2.10d).

v. 2

• The meaning of אֲבוֹתֵינוּ: While the noun אָב most typically refers to a literal father, it is often used to refer to more remote ancestors, especially with respect to founders of tribal units (TWOT, 6). Here in 44:2, context and the plural form make clear that ancestors are in view. Given the imagery of dispossessed nations of vv. 3–4, this is most likely a reference to Israel in the era of the conquest (cf. VanGemeren 2008, 390).
• The number of פֹּעַל: The noun פֹּעַל is almost always grammatically singular, though the term is usually used in a collective sense of repeated or habitual acts (DCH).
• The בְּ in בְּ-אָזְנֵינוּ ("with our ears") is an instrumental בְּ. The information reported comes into figurative contact with the speaker's ears (BHRG, §39.6b[ii]). Thus the ears become the figurative instrument of hearing.
• The בְּ in בִֽ-ימֵיהֶם ("in their time") as well as in בִּ-ימֵי קֶֽדֶם׃ ("in days long ago") are temporal. The temporal use of ב marks actual time in, at, or when (IBHS, §11.2.5c).

v. 3

• The meaning of יָדְךָ (your hand >> your strength): The bodily term יָד functions in the contextual domain of strength to denote one's power (SDBH). The imagery of God's hand is used figuratively to refer to his strength and power.
• The sense of וַתִּטָּעֵם and וַתְּשַׁלְּחֵם: Depending on the referents of the 3mp pronominal suffixes on these verbs (see Method:Grammar notes), the connotations of these terms could either be positive (i.e., "you planted... and set free [our ancestors]") or negative (i.e., "you transplanted... and expelled [the nations]"). Although גּוֹיִם "nations" and לְאֻמִּים "peoples" are syntactically nearer to the verbs, the אֲבוֹתֵינוּ "our ancestors" of v. 2 constitute the major participants, or protagonists, of this section, and are thus more cognitively accessible (or proximate) to the reader (de Regt 2020, 8). Thus, these verbs most likely have the positive sense of God settling Israel in the land (cf. NIV, CSB, NET). See Participant Analysis for further discussion.
• The meaning of וַתְּשַׁלְּחֵם: The core sense of the verb שׁלח appears to be "to send," from which other uses of the term radiate (NIDOTTE, 4:119). If taken in a positive sense (see note above), this verb could have the sense of "to let go free" (HALOT) or "to cause spread out" (DCH, 8:384). It has been suggested that וַתְּשַׁלְּחֵם should be connected with IV-שׁלח "to put forth shoots" (Ibid, 8:389; cf. VanGemeren 2008, 390). However, this would likely require an emendation from the piel form to an otherwise unattested hiphil of IV-שׁלח "to cause to put forth shoots" (DCH, 8:389, emphasis added). In absence of textual evidence for such an emendation, the most likely sense here is that of God setting Israel free to settle the land. In this vein, the piel שׁלח occurs as a thematic term in Exod 3–20 in reference to Pharaoh allowing Israel to go free from Egypt (NIDOTTE, 4:120, 121).

v. 4

• The meaning of הוֹשִׁיעָה: The verbal root ישׁע typically refers to the act of bringing help in the midst of trouble, rather than rescue out of it (NIDOTTE, 2:556). In the present context, the sense is that of God's provision of military victory over adversaries (Ibid, 2:560).

• The meaning of יְמִינְךָ and וּזְרוֹעֲךָ: The bodily terms יָמִין and זְרוֹעַ function in the contextual domain of strength to denote one's power (SDBH).
• The meaning of וְאוֹר פָּנֶיךָ: Within the contextual domain of body imagery, the "light (of one's face)" denotes a smile of favor (SDBH).

אוֹר פָּנֶי-ךָ ("the light of your face") is entity–origin. The imagery of light is "associated with life, goodness, happiness, prosperity, security, favor, and wisdom" (SDBH). The idiom אוֹר פָּנֶיךָ "light of your [i.e., God's] face" indicates divine approval (TWOT, 25). Thus, the semantics of the figurative expression is more akin to characteristic-possessor.

פָּנֶי-ךָ ("your face") possession (body part)–possessor. With פָנֶי used figuratively to refer to one's presence (DCH), the construct relationship would be closer to that of characteristic-possessor.

v. 5

• The meaning of הוּא: See Method:Grammar notes.
• "Command" or "who commands"? Modern translations differ with regard to treating צוה as an imperative, "command!" (ESV, NASB, NET) or substantival participle, "the one who commands" (NIV, CSB). For further discussion, see the text-critical note on this issue under the Method:Grammar layer.
• The meaning of יְשׁוּעוֹת: The verbal root ישׁע typically refers to the act of bringing help in the midst of trouble, rather than rescue out of it (NIDOTTE, 2:556). In the present context, the sense is that of God's provision of military victory over adversaries (Ibid, 2:560).

v. 6

• The meaning of נָבוּס: The LXX renders this term with ἐξουθενώσομεν "we shall despise" (NETS). Unlike other synonyms for trampling (e.g., דרך, רמס), the verb בוס typically denotes destructive action, accompanied with anger (TWOT, 96). This negative emotional component could help explain the LXX rendering.
• The meaning of קָמֵינוּ: The participial form of קום, used as a substantival, can have the sense of "one who rises up, adversary, enemy, opponent" (DCH). The suffixed 1cp pronoun is equivalent in meaning to the preposition עַל, i.e., "[to rise] against" us (HALOT).

קָמֵֽי-נוּ ("those who rise against us"): Entity–interested (favoured/injured) party. While the semantics of the verb קום suggest a relationship of entity-direction (i.e., "those who rise up towards us"), the substantival participle is used figuratively to denote adversaries (SDBH). Hence, the construct relationship is that of entity-interested party (i.e., "those who rise up against us").

• בְּשִׁמְ-ךָ ("in your name"): God's name figuratively refers to his authority (entity-origin; cf. SDBH). The בְּ in בְּשִׁמְךָ is a locative בְּ. While the ב could be construed as indicating instrument (i.e., by [means of], so DCH, 8:429), it has been noted that the construction בְּשֵׁם יְהוָה usually denotes the sense of commission (cf. 1 Sam 17:45; TWOT, 934) or authority (SDBH). Thus, the sense here is likely, "By your authority, we trample..." In this sense, the function of ב is likely closer to that of a metaphorical locative, denoting the domain in which the action occurs (cf. English, "under your authority").

v. 7

• The meaning of תוֹשִׁיעֵנִי: The verbal root ישׁע typically refers to the act of bringing help in the midst of trouble, rather than rescue out of it (NIDOTTE, 2:556). In the present context, the sense is that of God's provision of military victory over adversaries (Ibid, 2:560).

v. 8

• The meaning of הוֹשַׁעְתָּנוּ: The verbal root ישׁע typically refers to the act of bringing help in the midst of trouble, rather than rescue out of it (NIDOTTE, 2:556). In the present context, the sense is that of God's provision of military victory over adversaries (Ibid, 2:560).
• The meaning of הֱבִישׁוֹתָ: While most modern translations render this verb as "to put to shame," some translations opt for "to put to confusion" (NRSV, REB; cf. also Vulg., confudisti). The verb בושׁ can indeed express confusion, in the sense of the embarrassment and dismay that occur when a situation goes contrary to one's expectations (TWOT, 98). When applied to the context of military defeat, the term can express a disgrace that involves nuances of "confusion, disillusionment, humiliation, and brokenness which the word connotes" (Ibid).

v. 9

• The meaning of נוֹדֶה: The concept of ידה involves confession, which could denote publicly admitting one's shortcomings before God (SDBH). However, in the present context, ידה appears to denote a declaration of God's attributes and works (TWOT, 365).
• The meaning of סֶלָה: While there have been a multitude of proposed explanations for the 71 occurrences of סֶלָה in the Psalms, the meaning of the term remains unclear (Kraus 1988, 28). Most likely, the term has some type of musical significance (Craigie 2004, 76). The LXX translates the term with διάψαλμα, "leading motif" (LEH) or "interlude on strings" (NETS); whereas most modern translations simply transliterate it as Selah.
• כָל־הַיּוֹם ("all day long"): Indication of duration of time. This noun phrase specifies the temporal duration of the psalmist's boasting in God. Read in parallel with לְעוֹלָם in the following line, the temporal frame is not limited to a single day. Rather, it communicates continual praise throughout the entirety of the day.
• בֵּֽ-אלֹהִים ("in God"): The preposition ב often introduces the object of a mental act (GKC, §119l) as the piel verb הלל requires a complement. Alternatively, this prepositional phrase could be read as specification (i.e., “boast with respect to God...”; Arnold and Choi, §4.1.5e).

v. 10

• The number of צִבְאוֹתֵינוּ: In BH, צָבָא as a reference to military men can occur in either the singular or the plural (HALOT). The distinction between the singular and plural of collective nouns is not always clear (Young 2013, 478; צָבָא would be a collective "group noun" in this analysis). In the case of צָבָא, it is possible that the feminine plural form denotes an armed military force, as opposed to the more abstract concept of military service or warfare (cf. TLOT, 1041–42).
• בְּצִבְאוֹתֵֽי-נוּ ("with our armies"): Possession (concrete object)-possessor. While the construct relationship could be construed as part-divided whole (i.e., the portion of Israel's population that serves in the army), the broader context of the psalm suggests a corporate identification between the community and its army (see Exegetical Issue The Speaker of Ps. 44:5, 7, and 16). Thus, the emphasis would not be on the army as a distinct subset of the community, but rather as belonging to the community.

v. 11

• The meaning of תְּשִׁיבֵנוּ אָחוֹר: While the hiphil verb תְּשִׁיבֵנוּ with an accusative means "to bring or lead back" (HALOT), with the adverbial accusative אָחוֹר, the construction has the sense of "to make retreat" (DCH).
• The translation of לָמוֹ: Multiple modern translations omit the prepositional phrase לָמוֹ (NIV, ESV, NRSV, CEV). The phrase could have the nuance of "at their will" (Craigie 2004, 330; NET Notes; so REB, NJB). The NET captures this idiomatic sense in its rendering, "Those who hate us take whatever they want from us" (emphasis added). However, it is perhaps preferable to render the preposition as a לְ of advantage, "for themselves >> for their benefit." The verb שׁסה can be modified with a ל indicating benefit (DCH, 8:515). It is possible that this construction denotes the idiom of "at their will" (Craigie 2004, 330; cf. Ps 80:7), but this nuance is is not broadly attested.
• אָחוֹר ("backwards"): Indication of directional specification. This noun functions as an adverbial accusative of local determination (JM, §126h). In other words, it specifies the location where the action occurs. God has pushed his people "backwards."
• מִנִּי צָר ("from the adversary"): The most typical spatial use of מִן is for movement away from a point (BHRG, §39.14.1). Combined with the hiphil form of the verb שׁוב and אָ֭חוֹר, the construction has the sense of "to make retreat from enemies" (DCH).
• לָֽ-מוֹ ("for themselves"): The verb שׁסה can be modified with a ל indicating benefit (DCH, 8:515). It is possible that this construction denotes the idiom of "at their will" (Craigie 2004, 330; cf. Ps 80:7), but this nuance is is not broadly attested.

v. 12

• בַ-גּוֹיִם ("among the nations"): The preposition ב frequently indicates spatial location (BHRG, §39.6.1a). In connection with the verb זרה, it indicates place "among" the nations (DCH, 3:135).

v. 13

• The sense of רִבִּיתָ: Some modern translations treat רִבִּיתָ as an intransitive verb (i.e., "you have not profited/increased"), with the prepositional phrase בִּמְחִירֵיהֶם functioning as an adverbial modifier (i.e., "by their price"; so NASB, NIV, CSB, KJV). On the other hand, multiple translations treat רִבִּיתָ as a transitive verb describing the inflation of a purchase price (so ESV, NRSV, NET). While reading רִבִּיתָ as transitive is preferred grammatically, the construction as a whole (רִבִּיתָ בִּמְחִירֵיהֶם) represents the idiomatic expression, "to make a profit" (so HALOT, 1176). For further discussion on this issue, see Method:Grammar notes.
• בְ-לֹא־הוֹן ("for no wealth >> without compensation"): The ב can indicate the price of something, at times connoting "in exchange for" (Arnold and Choi 2018, §4.1.5j; BHRG, §39.6.3d). The sense here could be "for not-wealth >> for mock money" (so Jenni 1992, 152). More likely, it denotes the sense of "without value" (so deClaisse-Walford, et al 2014, 411; Goldingay 2007, 36).
• בִּ-מְחִירֵיהֶֽם ("inflate their price"): With the piel verb רבה, the preposition ב could indicate the object (DCH, 7:397). Alternatively, it is possible that the ב indicates means (i.e., "become great by their price" >> "grow rich"; so DCH, 2:86). However, this would imply an intransitive use of the piel of רבה, which is unlikely. A preferred alternative would be view the prepositional phrase as indicating specification, as it completes the transitive piel רבה (i.e., "make great with respect to price"; Arnold and Choi, §4.1.5e).

v. 14

• The meaning of חֶרְפָּה: While this term can be used to refer to the act of scorning (Lam 3:61; Zeph 2:8), it can also have the passive sense of "object of scorn" (Pss 31:12; 79:4; NIDOTTE, 2:280–81).
• The meaning of לַעַג וָקֶלֶס: The phrase לַעַג וָקֶלֶס also occurs in Ps 79:4. On this basis, it is possible that לַעַג וָקֶלֶס constitutes a fixed expression (or hendiadys) that means "scornful derision" (Goldingay 2007, 44).

v. 15

• The meaning of מָשָׁל: While typically associated with the wisdom sayings of the book of Proverbs (Prov 1:1, 6; 10:1; 25:1), the term מָשָׁל can have a more general sense of "saying" within a variety of genres (HALOT). The core meaning of "to be like, be equal to" appears to underly most uses of the nominal and verbal forms of the word (NIDOTTE, 2:1134). In contexts where the term clearly has a negative connotation, the most common modern English translation is "byword" (NIV, ESV, NRSV, NASB, NJB). Such translations suggest that the force of מָשָׁל is that of ridicule or taunting (see also CSB, NET, CEV, NCV). However, the core idea of comparison suggests that the true force of מָשָׁל is that of a negative example, presented to discourage others from doing likewise (Ibid, 2:1135).
• The meaning of מְנוֹד־רֹאשׁ: This is the only occurrence in the HB of the nominal מְנוֹד. The verbal form נוּד, when applied to the "shaking of the head," is an idiomatic means of expressing concern; the exact nuance can range between sympathy, surprise, or scorn (NIDOTTE, 3:53). Given the parallelism with מָשָׁל (see previous note), the sense of מְנוֹד־רֹאשׁ in v. 15 could be that of disapproval or shock, as opposed to taunting or mockery.

• For more on the meaning of בַּל־אֻמִּים see text-critical note on Method:Grammar.

v. 16-17

• v. 16 - The meaning of בֹֺּשֶׁת פָּנִים: The expression בֹֺּשֶׁת פָּנִים is common (Jer 7:19; Dan 9:7–8; Ezra 9:7; 2 Chr 32:21), and could denote the idiomatic sense of "blush" (TLOT, 206).
• כָּל־הַיּוֹם ("all day long"): Indication of duration of time. This noun phrase specifies the temporal duration of the psalmist's experience of shame. The focus appears to be on the shame's continuous—rather than unending—nature, as the psalmist is requesting that God deliver him from it.
• נֶגְדִּ-י ("before me"): Related to the use of נֶ֫גֶד for indicating observable proximity in space, the figurative use of the preposition indicates something that takes place "in the presence or sight of" the object (BHRG, §39.16.2b).
• v. 17 - The meaning of מְחָרֵף וּמְגַדֵּף: This word pair can be construed as a fixed expression (or hendiadys, so Goldingay 2007, 44). The verbal pair חרף and גדף also occurs in 2 Kgs 19:22 and Isa 37:23. If the participial forms are understood as a verbal hendiadys, then the verbal ideas would be parallel (i.e., "taunting and reviling"; Putnam 2002, §2.3.1). However, as the participles are functioning as substantives, then the second term of the nominal hendiadys should be understood as modifying the first (i.e., "the reviling taunter"; Ibid, §§1.8.1c[1]; 1.8.3b).
• v. 17 - The meaning of אוֹיֵב וּמִתְנַקֵּם: The exact phrase אוֹיֵב וּמִתְנַקֵּם also appears in Ps 8:3, and it is possible to understand the construction as a hendiadys (Baethgen 1904, 21). If the participial forms are understood as a verbal hendiadys, then the verbal ideas would be parallel (i.e., "adversarial and avenging"; Putnam 2002, §2.3.1). However, as the participles are functioning as substantives, then the second term of the nominal hendiadys should be understood as modifying the first (i.e., "the avenging enemy"; Ibid, §§1.8.1c[1]; 1.8.3b).

While the term נקם typically refers to "vengeance" as a form of divine justice, it occasionally denotes purely human (negative) vengefulness (cf. Ps 8:3; NIDOTTE, 3:156).

v. 18

• The meaning of שִׁקַּרְנוּ: When used intransitively (1 Sam 15:29; Isa 63:8), the piel of שׁקר could be construed as either a state (static/atelic; "he will not be false"; cf. DCH) or achievement (non-durative/telic; "he will not lie"; DCH). When, as here, the verb takes an object introduced by a preposition בְּ (see also Ps 89:34; Lev 10:11), the sense appears to be that of either an activity (durative/atelic; "we did not deal falsely with your covenant"; BDB) or achievement (non-durative/telic; "we did not break faith with your covenant"; HALOT). Since the psalmist is here describing an action that would have required judgment, an implied end point (i.e., telicity) is in view. Thus, rendering שִׁקַּרְנוּ as "break faith" is preferred.

v. 19

• The singular לִבֵּנוּ: The use of the singular form of לֵב/לֵבָב with a plural pronominal suffix is common in BH (134 occurrences), and occurs 22 times in the Psalms (Pss 4:5; 10:17; 22:27; 28:3; 31:25; 33:15, 21; 35:25; 37:15; 44:19; 48:14; 62:9; 69:33; 74:8; 78:18, 37; 81:13; 84:6; 95:8; 105:25; 107:12; 119:70). By contrast, the plural form of לֵב with a suffix only appears once in the Psalter (Ps 125:4). The singular form here in 44:19 is likely collective in meaning, a phenomenon that can occur with almost any word (Davidson 1902, 19). While essentially equivalent to the plural on a semantic level, this collective use of לֵב could be a reflection of corporate solidarity, in which the community's covenant fidelity is measured by the faithfulness of its collective "heart" (see Exegetical Issue: The Speaker of Ps. 44:5, 7, and 16).
• אֲשֻׁרֵי-נוּ ("our steps"): Verbal notion–subject. The image of אֲשֻׁרֵינוּ could be contrued as a body part-possessor relationship. However, with אֲשֻׁרֵי used figuratively to refer to one's actions in life (SDBH), the construct relationship would be closer to that of verbal notion-subject.
• אָרְחֶֽ-ךָ ("your path"): Product–author, creator, source, origin. With אָרְחֶֽ used figuratively to refer to a pattern of behavior (SDBH), the construct relationship would that have product-source (i.e., "the lifestyle defined by God").
• אָחוֹר ("backwards"): Indication of directional specification. This noun functions as an adverbial accusative of local determination (JM, §126h). In other words, it specifies the location where the action occurs. The people deny having slid "backwards."

v. 20

• The meaning of צַלְמָוֶת: The etymology of צַלְמָוֶת is debated, with several English translations treating it as a compound of צֵל "shadow" and מָוֶת "death" (NIDOTTE, 3:807), hence, "shadow of death" (ESV, NASB, KJV, ASV). This understanding is also reflected in the LXX's σκιὰ θανάτου. Alternatively, some scholars treat צַלְמָוֶת as being cognate with ṣalāmu "to be dark," attested in Akkadian and Arabic (TWOT, 767). This understanding possibly underlies renderings of "deep darkness" (NIV, NRSV, CSB, NCV, REB). However, even if one affirms the etymology behind "shadow of death," the idiomatic sense of the term could be that of deepest darkness, as מָוֶת could be functioning as a superlative (Dahood 1966, 147; hence NJB's "shadow dark as death").
• בִּמְקוֹם תַּנִּים ("in the place of jackals"): Entity–characteristic (description, attribute, quality). In the place of jackals; i.e., the place inhabited by jackals. As jackals are typically associated with uninhabited wastes, this image depicts God's wrath (NIDOTTE, 4:310).
• עָלֵי-נוּ ("[Covered] us"): The preposition עַל can indicate a location "over" or "upon" an object (Arnold and Choi 2018, § 4.1.16a.1). The piel verb כסה regularly pairs with עַל to mean "cover" (DCH, 4:442).
• בְ-צַלְמָֽוֶת׃ ("With deepest shadow"): The ב indicates the instrument (beth instrumenti) by which an action is realized (BHRG, §39.6.3a). In this construction, it indicates covering "by (means of)" deep darkness (so DCH, 4:442).

v. 21-22

• v. 21 - The meaning of וַנִּפְרֹשׂ כַּפֵּינוּ: The image depicted by this phrase is that of presenting one's empty palms in supplication to a god/God, and thus is an idiomatic expression describing prayer (SDBH).
• שֵׁם אֱלֹהֵי-נוּ ("our God's name"): Possession (characteristic)–possessor. God's name refers to the core of his identity, reflecting the essence of his being (SDBH). Hence, the construct relationship is that of characteristic-possessor.
• לְ-אֵל זָֽר׃ ("to another god"): The preposition ל most frequently denotes direction "to" or "towards" an object (Arnold and Choi 2018, §4.1.10a). Here, the figure of "[spreading] our palms to another god" is an idiomatic description of prayer (SDBH).

v. 23

• The sense of הֹרַגְנוּ: While the psalmist has not literally been killed, the inclusion of himself in the first-person plural could be explained on the basis of corporate solidarity (see Exegetical Issue: The Speaker of Ps. 44:5, 7, and 16), wherein the experience of the community is shared by the individual. Thus, Israel's experience of death by means of military defeat (v. 10) or plundering (v. 11) is reflected in the experience of the psalmist as well.
• כָל־הַיּוֹם ("all day long"): Indication of duration of time. This noun phrase specifies the temporal duration of the psalmist's experience of the threat of death. The focus appears to be on the experience's continuous—rather than unending—nature, as the psalmist is requesting that God deliver him from it.
• עָלֶי-ךָ ("because of you"): The preposition עַל can indicate indirect goal, "for the sake of" (BHRG, §39.20.3c), or cause, "because of" (Ibid, §39.20.4). The distinction between goals and causes can be difficult to distinguish (IBHS, §11.2.13e). However, within the present context of lament, the portrayal of God as the active agent in the psalmist's suffering points to a causal nuance.
• כְּ-צֹאן טִבְחָֽה׃ ("as sheep for slaughtering"): The preposition כ frequently indicates similarity (BHRG, §39.10.1).

v. 24

• The meaning of לָנֶצַח: The term נֵצַח is typically understood as "endurance, everlastingness, endlessness" (DCH). However, it has been noted that this meaning is difficult in instances where it is found alongside temporal questions of "How long?" (Pss 13:2; 74:10; 79:5; 89:47). It has been suggested that, based on a root meaning of "pre-eminent," נֵצַח can communicate a superlative sense (Thomas 1956, 108). If so, then the sense here would be, "Do not reject utterly." However, as the traditional rendering of "forever" is intelligible—even in difficult cases—by means of literary device, this temporal rendering is preferred (cf. NIDOTTE, 3:139–40).
• אֲדֹנָ-י ("our lord >> Lord): Kinship/relationship–possessor. When used in אֲדֹנָי, the 1cs suffix loses its force, as the entire construction is understood as a divine title (GKC, §135q).

v. 25

• פָנֶי-ךָ ("your face"): Possession (body part)–possessor. With פָנֶי used figuratively to refer to one's presence (DCH), the construct relationship would be closer to that of characteristic-possessor.

v. 26

• The meaning of שָׁחָה: Typically connected with the root I-שׁוח "to sink down," most modern translations render this clause as, "our soul has sunk/bowed down to the dust." This could also be idiomatically understood as "to be downcast, depressed" (DCH). Alternatively, the verb could be associated with the root III-שׁוח (DCH) or שׁיח (HALOT) "to melt." As the Aramaic and Syriac cognates of שׁיח can have the sense of "to melt away, vanish," it is possible that this would imply a sense of dissolution. Thus, melting away לֶעָפָר ("to dust") could have the sense of dissolving into dust, or becoming dust (cf. Gen 3:19).

However, in light of the parallel line that follows ("our body clings to the earth"), it seems preferable to associate שָׁחָה with a downward movement, either physically down to the dust, or idiomatically with respect to being emotionally downcast (NIDOTTE, 4:98).

• לֶ-עָפָר ("into the dust"): With verbs of motion, the preposition ל can denote the goal of the movement (terminative) (Arnold and Choi 2018, §4.1.10a). See note above on שָׁחָה.
• לָ-אָרֶץ ("to the earth"): The preposition ל can denote the location of an object at a certain point (Arnold and Choi 2018, §4.1.10b). However, the gloss "clings at the earth" would not conform to English idiom.

v. 27

• The meaning of פְדֵנוּ: The basic meaning of the verb פדה is "to achieve the transfer of ownership from one to another through payment of a price or an equivalent substitute" (TWOT, 716). While the commercial concept of payment sometimes recedes in contexts of deliverance from danger (Ibid, 717), here in Ps 44, the term could be understood as a reversal of God's "selling" his people (v. 13).
• לָּ-נוּ (To our [assistance]): The ל of interest (dativus commodi or benefactive dative) indicates the person for whom an action is directed (IBHS, §11.2.10d).

Verbal Semantics Chart

(For more information, click "Verbal Legend" below.)

Verbal Legend

Conjugations
qatal	yiqtol-jussive
wayyiqtol (following qatal)*	cohortative
yiqtol	participle
wayyiqtol (following yiqtol)*	wayyiqtol (following participle)*
weyiqtol	inf. construct
weqatal	inf. absolute
*Wayyiqtol is colored a darker version of the conjugation it follows.

Relative tense arrows
Relative tense arrows (placed within the appropriate 'Fut/Pres/Past' column) are color coded according to the conjugation of the verb. The arrows in the table below are colored according to the typical uses of the conjugations.
After/posterior/future	Imminent future	Simultaneous/right now	Recent past	Before/anterior/past
← ←	↤	↓↓↓	↦	→ →

Aspect
	Continuous	Habitual or iterative	Stative	Perfective
Encoded in words	⟲	⟲⟲⟲	⎯	•
Inferable from context	⟲	⟲⟲⟲	⎯	•

Reference point movement
Movement	No movement
⇐	⇍

Modality
indicative	purpose/result
jussive	necessity
imperative	possible
cohortative	probable
wish	ability
(past) conditional	interrogative, etc.

If an emendation or revocalization is preferred, that emendation or revocalization will be marked in the Hebrew text of all the visuals.

Emendations/Revocalizations legend
*Emended text*	Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is indicated by blue asterisks on either side of the emendation.
*Revocalized text*	Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is indicated by purple asterisks on either side of the revocalization.

Bibliography

Craigie, Peter. 2004. Psalms 1–50. 2nd ed. WBC 19. Nashville: Nelson.

Dahood, Mitchell. 1966. Psalms I: 1–50. Anchor Bible. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

Davidson, A. B. 1902. Introductory Hebrew Grammar Hebrew Syntax. 3d ed. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.

de Regt, Lénart. 2020. Linguistic Coherence in Biblical Hebrew Texts. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press.

Goldingay, John. 2007. Psalms. Vol. 2. Baker Commentary on the Old Testament Wisdom and Psalms. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic.