The Speaker of Ps. 44:5, 7, and 16

Back to Psalm 44.

Exegetical issues for Psalm 44:

The Line Division of Ps. 44:2–3

The Speaker of Ps. 44:5, 7, and 16

The Text and Meaning of Ps. 44:5

Introduction

Psalm 44 is typically categorized as a community lament, as first-person plural grammatical forms predominate the text. However, scattered throughout the psalm are a number of first-person singular constructions (vv. 5, 7, 16). The alternation between plural and singular constructions can be visualized below:

The referent of these first-person singular forms, and thus the identity of the speaker of the psalm, is unclear. On the one hand, several commentators argue that the speaker is a liturgical or military leader. On the other hand, the alternation in grammatical number could simply be a matter of variation in literary style, with the collective community remaining the speaker throughout.

Argument Maps

The speaker is a king

The singular speaker could be a political or military leader, most likely the king. The arguments for this interpretation are outlined below.

 
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[Voice of a king]: The first-person singular references represent the voice of a king. #dispreferred
 + <Military defeat>: The descriptions in Ps 44 depict a national military defeat (vv. 9–10). As commander-in-chief over Israel's armed forces, the king is most likely speaking (Craigie 2004, 331–32 :C:). #dispreferred
  <_ <Ambiguous situation>: While Ps 44 refers to humiliation before foreign nations, the situation could be that of military defeat, political persecution, or some other injustice (deClaisse-Walford, et al 2014, 408 :C:).
  <_ <Experience of the people>: While a king would be directly affected by a military defeat, the distress over the situation in Ps 44 is experienced by the entire community. Speaking about defeat would not necessitate the voice of the king.
 - <The speaker is the community>: The singular speaker and the plural community are coreferential.
  + <Parallels in prose>: In Deuteronomy, Israel is addressed with alternating singular and plural utterances. The referent remains the same despite the shift in number. Personal commands tend to occur in the singular, while general reports usually occur in the plural (de Regt 2013 :D:).
  + <Rhetorical effect>: Rather than being an indication of multiple speakers, the shifts to the singular have an intensifying and personalizing effect (VanGemeren 2008, 289 :C:; de Regt 2020, 30 :M:).
    <_ <Corporate solidarity>: The personalizing effect of shifting to the singular is not incompatible with multiple speakers. The speaker and community constitute a corporate unity, in which the individual member of the covenant community can represent the whole of that community. #dispreferred
      + <Past-present corporate solidarity>: The present community of Ps 44 is depicted as being in continuity with the previous era of ancestors. Yet the continuity between the generations does not negate their existence as distinct entities. #dispreferred
       + <Shared contemporary/ancestral trust>: The denial that victory comes by means of "the sword" occurs with reference to both the patriarchs (לֹא בְחַרְבָּם יָרְשׁוּ אָרֶץ, v. 4) and the psalmist (וְחַרְבִּי לֹא תוֹשִׁיעֵנִי, v. 7). #dispreferred
       + <Corporate expectation>: The plea of Ps 44 appears to be rooted in the concept of inter-generational corporate solidarity. By recounting God's past deliverances, the psalmist can look ahead with faith to a continuation of those works (Craigie 2004, 333 :C:). Thus the psalmist (singular), the community (plural), and the previous generation (third-person) form a corporate unity. #dispreferred
      + <Leaders represent community>: In the Psalms, the prophet, priest, and king speak as representatives of God's covenant community (Bosma 2008, 199–200 :A:; cf. Schaefer 2001, 11 :C:). The liturgical leader in Ps 44 could serve that same role. #dispreferred
      + <Singular-to-plural shifts in Psalms>: Elsewhere, Psalms that predominately feature a singular speaker often conclude with the plural, suggesting that the individual speaker and the community form a corporate unity (Bosma 2008, 204 :A:). #dispreferred
        + [Singular-to-plural shifts]: Pss 5:11-12; 25:22; 28:8-9; 31:24-25; 36:11-13; 51:18-19; 69:34-36; 130:7-8; 131:3. #dispreferred
 + <Antiphonal recitation>: The alternation between singular (leader) and plural (community) could be explained as an alternation of speakers (Craigie 2004,331–32 :C:; deClaisse-Walford 2007,748 :A:). The king and community take turns speaking in a call-and-response structure. #dispreferred
  - <No refrain>: Antiphonal call-and-response structures are typically associated with a repeated chorus or refrain (cf. Watson 1986, 275, 296 :M:). Such repetition is not present in Ps 44.

The speaker is the collective community

Alternatively, the use of first-person singular forms could have the same referent as the plural forms, namely the collective community as a whole. The arguments for this view are presented below.

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[Community Speaker]: The community is the speaker throughout the psalm. #dispreferred
 - <Grammatical agreement>: If the (plural) community were the speaker, then one would expect first-person_plural_ grammatical constructions, rather than the_singular_, in vv. 5, 7, 16.
  <_ <Plural subjects with singular verbs>: Plural subjects can occasionally function as collectives, and thus take on singular verbs (cf. JM, §150g :G:). .#dispreferred
   + [Num 20:19]: "Then the __Israelites (pl., בְּנֵי־יִשְׂרָאֵל)__ said (pl., וַיֹּאמְרוּ) to him, 'We will go up (pl., נַעֲלֶה) along the highway, and if we drink (pl., נִשְׁתֶּה) your water—__I (sg., אֲנִי)__ or __my__ livestock (sg. sf., וּמִקְנַי), then __I will pay  (sg., וְנָתַתִּי)__ you their price. Only __let me pass through (sg., אֶעֱבֹרָה)__ on __my__ feet (sg. sf., בְּרַגְלַי), nothing else.'" #dispreferred
 + <Rhetorical effect>: Shifts from plural to singular grammatical number can have an intensifying and personalizing effect (VanGemeren 2008, 289 :C:; de Regt 2020, 30 :M:). The use of the singular, on behalf of the whole community, individualizes their commitment (Goldingay 2007, 2:37 :C:). #dispreferred
 + <Parallels in prose>: Elsewhere in the HB, Israel is addressed with alternating singular and plural utterances. The referent remains the same despite the shift in number. Personal commands tend to occur in the singular, while general reports usually occur in the plural (de Regt 2013 :D:). #dispreferred
  + [Example shift in Deuteronomy]: "And if you forget (sg., תִּשְׁכַּח) the LORD your God and go after (sg., וְהָלַכְתָּ) other gods and serve them (sg., וַעֲבַדְתָּם) and worship (sg., וְהִשְׁתַּחֲוִיתָ) them, I solemnly warn you today that you shall surely perish (pl., תֹּאבֵדוּן)" (Deut 8:19 ESV). #dispreferred
 - <Sons of Korah>: If the reference to לִבְנֵי־קֹרַח in the superscription (v. 1) indicates authorship, then the speaker throughout Ps 44 (singular and plural) should be associated with them, rather than the community.
  - <Covenant community descriptions>: Much of Ps 44 implies the experience of the entire covenant communtiy, rather than a group of select individuals. #dispreferred
   + <Covenant and victory>: The association between covenant faithfulness (vv. 18–19, 21-22) and military success (v. 10) is rooted in the concept of covenantal blessing and curse (Lev 26:17, 31–38; Deut 28:25). Appeals for military success, on the basis of covenant blessing, would imply community (rather than individual) covenant faithfulness. #dispreferred
   + <Covenant and exile>: The imagery of "scattering" (זרה) among the nations (v. 12) echoes the language of national covenant curse (Lev 26:33; Deut 28:64). The psalmist's confusion over the current situation is only explicable in light of community (rather than individual) covenant faithfulness. #dispreferred
   <_ <Corporate solidarity>: The individual member of the covenant community can represent the whole of that community. In the Psalms, the prophet, priest, and king speak as representatives of God's covenant community (Bosma 2008, 199–200 :A:; cf. Schaefer 2001, 11 :C:).

The speaker is a liturgical leader (preferred)

The singular speaker could be a liturgical or congregational leader. The arguments for this interpretation are outlined below.

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[Liturgical leader]: The first-person singular references represent the voice of a liturgical leader.
 + <Sons of Korah>: If the reference to לִבְנֵי־קֹרַח in the superscription (v. 1) indicates authorship, then the primary speaker in Ps 44 would be a_liturgical_ leader, rather than a political or military one.
  - <Grammatical agreement>: Korahite authorship would imply that they are the (plural) speakers. If so, then one would expect first-person_plural_ grammatical constructions, rather than the_singular_, in vv. 5, 7, 16. #dispreferred
   <_ <Author/Speaker distinction>: Korahite authorship would imply that the experiences expressed would be from a liturgical perspective, but does not necessarily mean that the Korahites would be the speaker during corporate use of the psalm. That role would likely be reserved "for the director" (לַמְנַצֵּחַ).
 - <The speaker is the community>: The singular speaker and the plural community are coreferential. #dispreferred
  + <Parallels in prose>: In Deuteronomy, Israel is addressed with alternating singular and plural utterances. The referent remains the same despite the shift in number. Personal commands tend to occur in the singular, while general reports usually occur in the plural (de Regt 2013 :D:). #dispreferred
  + <Rhetorical effect>: Rather than being an indication of multiple speakers, the shifts to the singular have an intensifying and personalizing effect (VanGemeren 2008, 289 :C:; de Regt 2020, 30 :M:). #dispreferred
    <_ <Corporate solidarity>: The personalizing effect of shifting to the singular is not incompatible with multiple speakers. The speaker and community constitute a corporate unity, in which the individual member of the covenant community can represent the whole of that community.
      + <Past-present corporate solidarity>: The present community of Ps 44 is depicted as being in continuity with the previous era of ancestors. Yet the continuity between the generations does not negate their existence as distinct entities.
       + <Shared contemporary/ancestral trust>: The denial that victory comes by means of "the sword" occurs with reference to both the patriarchs (לֹא בְחַרְבָּם יָרְשׁוּ אָרֶץ, v. 4) and the psalmist (וְחַרְבִּי לֹא תוֹשִׁיעֵנִי, v. 7).
       + <Corporate expectation>: The plea of Ps 44 appears to be rooted in the concept of inter-generational corporate solidarity. By recounting God's past deliverances, the psalmist can look ahead with faith to a continuation of those works (Craigie 2004, 333 :C:). Thus the psalmist (singular), the community (plural), and the previous generation (third-person) form a corporate unity.
      + <Leaders represent community>: In the Psalms, the prophet, priest, and king speak as representatives of God's covenant community (Bosma 2008, 199–200 :A:; cf. Schaefer 2001, 11 :C:). The liturgical leader in Ps 44 could serve that same role.
       + <Priests speak for the community>: In Ezra 9:6–15, the priest Ezra prays on behalf of the post-exilic community, referencing Israel's kings and military defeat, while using first-person plural references.
       + <Liturgical leaders speak for the community>: In Neh 9:32–37, Levites lead a prayer to God, on behalf of Israel past and present, from kings to commoners, using first-person plural references.
      + <Singular-to-plural shifts in Psalms>: Elsewhere, Psalms that predominately feature a singular speaker often conclude with the plural, suggesting that the individual speaker and the community form a corporate unity (Bosma 2008, 204 :A:).
        + [Singular-to-plural shifts]: Pss 5:11-12; 25:22; 28:8-9; 31:24-25; 36:11-13; 51:18-19; 69:34-36; 130:7-8; 131:3.
 + <Antiphonal recitation>: The alternation between singular (leader) and plural (community) could be explained as an alternation of speakers (Craigie 2004,331–32 :C:; deClaisse-Walford 2007,748 :A:). The leader and community take turns speaking in a call-and-response structure.
  - <No refrain>: Antiphonal call-and-response structures are typically associated with a repeated chorus or refrain (cf. Watson 1986, 275, 296 :M:). Such repetition is not present in Ps 44. #dispreferred

Conclusion (B)

The singular constructions of Psalm 44:5, 7, and 16 are best understood as references to an individual speaker. In light of the superscription (v. 1), the intended speaker is most likely the director (מְנַצֵּחַ), for whom the psalm was composed for corporate use. The Korahite authors, themselves liturgical leaders—and a smaller subset of the broader Israelite community—would thus find expression of their experiences through the voice of this leader.

As representatives of the covenant community itself, the liturgical leader's experience by definition mirrors that of the community as a whole. Thus, interpreting the singular speech as that of a liturgical leader does not wholly exclude hearing the voice of the community as well. This dynamic can be explained via the phenomenon of corporate solidarity, in which the individual functions as a representative of the community as a whole (and vice versa).

The view that Psalm 44 reflects the experience of a king is also compatible with this concept of corporate solidarity. However, absent an explicit reference to the king (cp. Pss 44:7; 33:16) or a Davidic superscription (cf. Pss 60:12; 108:12), such an identification would have to be inferred from the overall military tenor of the psalm.

On a rhetorical level, the shift to an individual speaker (who is also a part of the corporate community) has an intensifying and personalizing effect, which could point to the presence of discourse peaks or climaxes at these points in the psalm.

Research

Translations

The vast majority of ancient and modern translations utilize first-person singular references in 44:5, 7, 16–17. The translations below are exceptions in using the first-person plural.

Ancient

v. 7

• Syriac Peshitta: ܡܛܠ ܕܠܐ ܗܘܐ ܥܠ ܩܫ̈ܬܬܢ ܬܟܝܠܝܢܢ ܐܦ ܠܐ ܥܠ ܙܝܢܢ ܕܢܦܪܩܢ
  • "For we are not trusting in our bows; nor in our weapons, that they might save us" (Taylor)

Modern

vv. 16–17

• "We can’t escape the constant humiliation; shame is written across our faces. All we hear are the taunts of our mockers. All we see are our vengeful enemies." (NLT)

Secondary Literature

Bosma, Carl J. 2008. “Discerning the Voices in the Psalms: A Discussion of Two Problems in Psalmic Interpretation.” Calvin Theological Journal 43, no. 2: 183–212.

Craigie, Peter. 2004. Psalms 1–50. 2nd ed. WBC 19. Nashville: Nelson.

Crow, Loren D. 1992. “The Rhetoric of Psalm 44.” ZAW 104, no. 3: 394–401.

deClaissé-Walford, Nancy L. 2007. “Psalm 44: O God, Why Do You Hide Your Face?” Review & Expositor 104, no. 4: 745–59.

deClaissé-Walford, Nancy, Rolf A. Jacobson, and Beth LaNeel Tanner. 2014. The Book of Psalms. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

de Regt, Lénart. 2020. Linguistic Coherence in Biblical Hebrew Texts. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press.

________. 2013. "Participant Reference in Discourse: Biblical Hebrew." In Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics Online. Edited by Geoffrey Khan. Brill.

Goldingay, John. 2007. Psalms. Vol. 2. Baker Commentary on the Old Testament Wisdom and Psalms. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic.

Schaefer, Konrad. 2001. Psalms. Berit Olam Studies in Hebrew Narrative and Poetry. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press.

VanGemeren, Willem A. 2008. “Psalms.” REBC 5. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

Watson, Wilfred G. E. 1986. Classical Hebrew Poetry: A Guide to Its Techniques. JSOT 26. Sheffield: JSOT Press.

References

44:5, 7, 16–17 Approved