Psalm 44 Poetics

Psalm Overview

• Grammar
• Semantics
• Story behind the Psalm
• Discourse
• Poetics

About the Poetics Layer

Exploring the Psalms as poetry is crucial for understanding and experiencing the psalms and thus for faithfully translating them into another language. This layer is comprised of two main parts: poetic structure and poetic features. (For more information, click 'Expand' to the right.)

Poetic Structure

In poetic structure, we analyse the structure of the psalm beginning at the most basic level of the structure: the line (also known as the “colon” or “hemistich”). Then, based on the perception of patterned similarities (and on the assumption that the whole psalm is structured hierarchically), we argue for the grouping of lines into verses, verses into strophes, strophes into stanzas, etc. Because patterned similarities might be of various kinds (syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, sonic) the analysis of poetic structure draws on all of the previous layers (especially the Discourse layer).

Poetic Features

In poetic features, we identify and describe the “Top 3 Poetic Features” for each Psalm. Poetic features might include intricate patterns (e.g., chiasms), long range correspondences across the psalm, evocative uses of imagery, sound-plays, allusions to other parts of the Bible, and various other features or combinations of features. For each poetic feature, we describe both the formal aspects of the feature and the poetic effect of the feature. We assume that there is no one-to-one correspondence between a feature’s formal aspects and its effect, and that similar forms might have very different effects depending on their contexts. The effect of a poetic feature is best determined (subjectively) by a thoughtful examination of the feature against the background of the psalm’s overall message and purpose.

Poetics Visuals for Psalm 44

Poetic Structure

Poetic Macro-structure

Notes

• **v. 5: For the emendation of the MT אֱלֹהִ֑ים צַ֝וֵּ֗ה see Grammar Layer note.
• **v. 15b: For the emendation of the MT בַּל־אֻמִּֽים׃ see Grammar Layer note.
• It is possible to divide Ps 44 into three main parts: (1) vv. 1–9, a celebration of God's deliverance; (2) vv. 10–17, a lament over defeat and humiliation, and (3) vv. 18–27, a grievance and petition for help (so Fokkelman 2003, 63). However, the concentration of volitive forms (imperatives and jussives) in vv. 24–27—which also forms an inclusio for the section—suggests that these verses constitute a fourth stanza.
• v. 2: While it is possible to view v. 2 as constituting its own introductory section (so Terrien 2003, 358), it seems preferable to treat it as part of the larger section of vv. 2–9. The (fronted) divine title אֱלֹהִים in v. 2 also appears in v. 9, forming an inclusio.
• vv. 2–9: This first stanza of the psalm is characterized by recountings of God-driven victories over his people's enemies. The stanza as a whole is marked off by the inclusio אֱלֹהִים. The instrumental ב preposition, used throughout this section, underscores the major theme of this stanza, i.e., the means of Israel's military deliverance.
  • v. 5: As one of only two nominal clauses in this psalm (the other occurring in v. 16), this verse stands out as a pivot point in this initial stanza of the psalm. It also represents a transition between recounting past deliverances and proclaiming (likely proverbial) present victories.
  • vv. 2–4: The first strophe of the stanza features 3mp pronominal suffixes throughout, highlighting its concern with God's dealings with the ancestors.
  • vv. 5–9: Despite a transition to a new movement of the psalm, this second strophe of the stanza echoes themes found in the first half. Repeated mentions of the root ישׁע echo the initial instance of the root in v. 4. Furthermore, both halves of the stanza conclude with discourse-level כִּי לֹא clauses (denying the power of human might), followed by adversative כִּי clauses (contrasting human might with divine power).
• vv. 10–17: This second stanza is characterized by descriptions of Israel's defeat and humiliation. It can be further divided thematically between descriptions of defeat (vv. 10–13) and humiliation (vv. 14–17). These distinct sections are also signaled by the use of paired qatal-yiqtol verbal constructions in vv. 10–13 and the repeated תְּשִׂימֵ֣נוּ in vv. 14 and 15. In contrast with the third stanza that follows, this second stanza features primarily 2ms verb forms referring to God, highlighting his agency (and responsibility) in this lament.
• vv. 16–17: With v. 5, v. 16a is the only instance of a nominal clause in this psalm. Given the predominance of verbal clauses throughout the psalm, this makes the clause stand out at the end of this stanza. In v. 17, the piling on of terminology, coupled with the assonance of the letter מ (Schaefer 2001, 112), appear to build up to an emotional climax for the psalm. This provides the springboard for the following stanza, and the psalmist's protestation of innocence.
• vv. 18–23: The fronted כָּל־זֹאת of v. 18 signals a transition (Lugt 2010, 25) and indicates topic shift, thus suggesting the beginning of a new stanza (see Macrosyntax). This stanza is characterized by two strophes with parallel syntactic features: in each strophe, the verb שׁכח (vv. 18, 21) is followed by a negative clause (vv. 19, 22), which then sets up a contrast with an adversative כִּי-clause (vv. 20, 23). Also, in contrast with the preceding stanza, these verses feature primarily first-person verbs, or verbs for body parts standing as metonymies for the first-person speaker. This focuses the readers attention on Israel throughout this stanza, as the psalmist makes the case for their covenant faithfulness.
• vv. 24–27: This final section is distinct due to its concentration of volitive forms in vv. 24 and 27. Furthermore, interrogative particles such as לָמָּה (vv. 24, 25) tend to occur at the beginning of strophes (Lugt 2006, 79). Applying these phenomena yields a stanza composed of three strophes (v. 24; vv. 25–26; v. 27), with two supplications bracketing an interrogative lament.

Line Division

• **v. 15b: For the emendation of the MT בַּל־אֻמִּֽים׃ see Grammar Layer note.
• v. 2c: While the revia mugraš of בִֽ֝ימֵיהֶ֗ם does not tend to correspond to line divisions (cf. de Hoop and Sanders 2022, 35), it seems likely that it is doing so in this case. Reading v. 2 without a line division at this point results in an unbalanced 3-2-5 tricolon, whereas dividing the lines at the revia mugraš results in a pair of 3-2 bicola (cf. Craigie 2004, 330).
• vv. 2d–3a: Some scholars have suggested that אַתָּה יָדְךָ "you, your hand" in v. 3a should be placed at the end of v. 2d for metrical reasons. This would involve moving the soph pasuq of v. 2 forward to יָדְךָ in v. 3a (so Fokkelman 2003, 64–65) and/or emending the MT (e.g., בְיָדְךָ in place of אַתָּה יָדְךָ, so BHS). However, the MT divisions are supported by the LXX, Targum, and Syriac. Furthermore, placing אַתָּה יָדְךָ with v. 2d would imply that אַתָּה is the subject of פָּעַלְתָּ "you did," with יָדְךָ functioning appositionally (Fokkelman 2003, 65), resulting in the unusual rendering, "the works you, your hand, did..." (cf. NEB, "all the deeds which thou didst in their days, all the work of thy hand in days of old"). It seems preferable to take אַתָּה יָדְךָ with v. 3a, with אַתָּה functioning as a left-dislocated element (see Grammar Layer note). This would also preserve the syntactic parallel with v. 5, which serves as a thematic pivot point (see Poetic Structure above).
• v. 4b: In BHS/BHK (cf. also Aleppo and Sassoon codices), in instances where a word bearing the ole weyored has its primary stress on the first syllable, the ole (<) appears on the preceding word (Price 2010, 191). This is the case with הוֹשִׁ֪יעָ֫ה לָּ֥מוֹ, and the resulting line division should be read at לָּמוֹ. Furthermore, as words joined by the ole weyored constitute a prosodic word (see CG), the resulting bicolon of v. 4a-b has a relatively unbalanced 5-2 prosodic-word meter. However, the lines are fully balanced if measured on the basis of syllable count (9-9).

Poetic Features

1. Double Irony

**v. 15b: For the emendation of the MT בַּל־אֻמִּֽים׃ see Grammar Layer note.

Feature

Ps 44:2–9 begins the psalm on a positive note, which is deceptive, and sets the stage for the lament to come (Craigie 2004, 333). Aside from the positive overall tone of this initial section, the language and imagery used throughout carry connotations of covenant blessing (cf. Lev 26; Deut 28). Furthermore, by calling attention to Israel's forefathers in vv. 2–4, the psalmist taps into the concept of covenant promise.

This sense of covenant blessing, and its associations with covenant fidelity, set the reader up for an ironic twist beginning in v. 10. The descriptions of defeat and humiliation in vv. 10–17 echo the descriptions of covenant curse presented in Lev 26 and Deut 28. As such, the reader is confronted with the possibility that, contrary to initial expectations, God's people have indeed been unfaithful to their covenant obligations.

However, this presentation of suffering—and its associations with covenant curse—set the stage for a second ironic twist. Beginning in v. 18, the psalmist makes explicit that the nation has not, in fact, been guilty of violating God's covenant. Rather, Israel has been faithful to the covenant, thus leaving unexplained the reason for Israel's experience of apparent curse.

For further discussion of the background of covenant blessing and curse in Ps 44, see Semantics/Story behind the Psalm.

Effect

In addition to creating a sense of surprise, this use of irony amplifies the sense of confusion and despair expressed in the psalm's laments, and highlights the urgency and desperation in its closing petition (vv. 24–27).

2. No! No? No!

**v. 15b: For the emendation of the MT בַּל־אֻמִּֽים׃ see Grammar Layer note.

Feature

Ps 44 features a high number of instances of the negative particle לֹא. Notably, in the first (vv. 2–9) and third (vv. 18–23) sections of the psalm, the clauses featuring לֹא are followed up with adversative and/or explanatory כִּי-clauses. In the final section, the negative particle אַל of v. 24 is followed by another כִּי-clause of v. 26. However, these כִּי-clauses are entirely absent in the second section of the psalm (vv. 10–17).

Effect

In the first section of Ps 44 (vv. 2–9), the כִּי-clauses provide a positive balance to the preceding negative statements (in the case of the adversatives), or, in the case of v. 4d, an explanatory statement. Victory by means of human might is negated, while victory by means of God's might is positively affirmed. This is then explained on the grounds of God's favor (רצה, v. 4d).

In the psalm's third section (vv. 18–23), the כִּי-clauses provide a stark contrast to the psalmist's denials of wrongdoing (in the case of the adversatives), or, in the case of v. 22b, the explanatory grounds of the psalmist's defense. In a reversal of the first section, the positive denials of wrongdoing are balanced out by negative experiences of defeat. The psalmist's protestation of innocence is then grounded by an appeal to God's omniscience (v. 22b).

The final section of the psalm (vv. 24–27) is distinct in that it features the negative particle אַל instead of לֹא (v. 26). As אַל negates the volitional yiqtol תִּזְנַח, the distinct negative particle is in keeping with the volitional theme of this section. The explanatory כִּי of v. 26 grounds the request with an expressive appeal to God's compassion (see Speech Act Analysis).

This leaves a notable absence of explanatory or adversative כִּי-clauses in the second section of the psalm (vv. 10–17). There is no positive balance to the negative experiences, nor is there an explanation provided for their underlying cause. This phenomenon could reflect the psalmist's inability to reconcile his present circumstances with God's broader plan or character.

3. Patterns of Reversal

**v. 15b: For the emendation of the MT בַּל־אֻמִּֽים׃ see Grammar Layer note.

Feature

Scholars have recognized many established poetic devices and techniques in Hebrew poetry that were commonly used to add layers of meaning to a text, such as parallelism (Watson 1986, §6) and keywording (Ibid, §11.04). However, scholars have also recognized that "inversion of an accepted or established poetic device is itself a powerful way of producing further poetic devices..." (Ibid, 357).

Psalm 44 features a number of these intentional inversions of the established devices of parallelism and keywording:

With respect to parallelism, one common form of the device is gender-matched parallelism, in which masculine and feminine nouns occur in parallel lines, with the noun genders remaining consistent within each line (Watson 1986, 123). At times, however, the poet will deliberately invert this pattern, and the parallel lines will feature corresponding nouns with opposite gender (Ibid, 124). This appears to be the case in Ps 44:14, where the feminine חֶרְפָּה is found with the masculine שְׁכֵנֵינוּ in the first line, while the masculine לַעַג וָקֶלֶס is found with the feminine סְבִיבוֹתֵינוּ in the second.

A similar reversal of expected parallelism occurs in v. 26. The words אֶרֶץ and עָפָר commonly occur together, in that specific order (Isa 26:5; 29:4; 34:7; 49:23; Ezek 24:7; Pss 7:6; 22:30; Prov 8:26; Job 14:8; 39:14). However, this order is reversed here in v. 26 (see also Isa 34:9; 47:1; Mic 7:17), and is likely an intentional inversion of the standard sequence (Watson 1986, 357).

With respect to keywords, a number of key terms are repeated throughout Ps 44, yet with a reversed referent or connotation. The term אֶרֶץ initially occurs in v. 4 as a reference to covenant blessing, yet is repeated in v. 26 as a depiction of impending death (see Semantics/Story behind the Psalm). The word פָּנֶה appears in v. 4 as an image of God's favor, a favor that is witheld in v. 25. Furthermore, the term occurs in v. 16 as a description of the psalmist's shame, and in v. 17 in relation to the mockery of enemies. The verb בושׁ refers to the shaming of enemies in v. 8, yet the nominal form refers to the psalmist's shame in v. 16.

An example of a positive reversal occurs with the verb קום, which appears as a substantival participle in v. 6, with reference to Israel's enemies; it then reappears as an imperatival request for God's assistance in v. 27.

Effect

The intentional inversion of poetic devices in Ps 44 reflects its overall message. Throughout this psalm, there is a sense of ironic reversal of expecations (see Poetic Feature 1).

The reversal of the typical pattern of gender-matched parallelism reflects the sense of reversal highlighted in the psalmist's experience. The inversion of gender-matching can be used to emphasize an unusual event, or to depict an inversion of state (Watson 1986, 127). Both functions would be suitable to the present context, and perhaps the best description of this effect is that it highlights the unusual reversal of Israel's state, from God's chosen and favored people to an object of scorn and derision.

Meanwhile, the reversal of the expected order of the paired terms אֶרֶץ and עָפָר appears to highlight a portrayal of abnormal events (Watson 1986, 357). Once again, the poetic deviation from expected patterns mirrors the inversion of covenant expectations present throughout this psalm.

This sense of reversed expectations is further reflected in the use of keywords with differing referents and connotations. Concepts typically associated with covenant blessing—the land, God's countenance, the shaming of enemies—are turned on their head to reflect Israel's experience of (what appears to be) covenant curse.

This reversal of keywords is itself turned on its head in the final verse of the psalm. A term for Israel's enemies ("those who rise against us" >> "enemies," v. 6) is repeated in its imperatival form, but this time as a plea for God's deliverance from those enemies ("Arise!" v. 27). Thus, a device that has been used throughout to highlight unexpected suffering (viz., reversals in expected usage) becomes, in the end, a plea to "reverse the reversals."

Repeated Roots

(For more information, click "Repeated Roots Legend" below.)

Repeated Roots Legend

Repeated Roots legend
	Roots occurring only in the first half of the psalm are indicated in a green box.
	Roots occurring only on the second half of the psalm are indicated in a blue box.
	Roots occurring in both halves of the psalm are indicated in a black box.
	Roots connected across sections are indicated by a vertical black line connecting the roots.
	The Mid-point for the repeated roots is indicated by a horizontal bar.

• If Ps 44 is understood as having a three-part structure (cf. Terrien 2003, 358), then the line of symmetry presented in this diagram serves as the boundary between the second and third strophes.
• The root גֹּוי appears before the line of symmetry, yet spans both the first (vv. 2–9) and second (vv. 10–17) strophes.
• Both God (אֱלֹהִים) and his name (שֵׁם) are featured on both sides of the symmetry line.
• Terms related to the mind (לבב and שׁכח) are concentrated in the final section of the psalm.
• The term זנח occurs on both sides of the symmetry line, first as an indicative (v. 10), and then as a (negative) jussive (v. 24).