Psalm 44 Speech Act

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Sheep to Be Slaughtered

Psalm 44

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Speech Act Analysis

What is Speech Act Analysis?

The Speech Act layer presents the text in terms of what it does, following the findings of Speech Act Theory. It builds on the recognition that there is more to communication than the exchange of propositions. Speech act analysis is particularly important when communicating cross-culturally, and lack of understanding can lead to serious misunderstandings, since the ways languages and cultures perform speech acts varies widely.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Speech Act Analysis Creator Guidelines.

• Summary Visual
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Summary Visual

Speech Act Analysis Chart

The following chart is scrollable (left/right; up/down).

  Legend

Verse	Hebrew	CBC	Sentence type	Illocution (general)	Illocution with context	Macro speech act	Intended perlocution (Think)	Intended perlocution (Feel)	Intended perlocution (Do)
Verse number and poetic line	Hebrew text	English translation	Declarative, Imperative, or Interrogative Indirect Speech Act: Mismatch between sentence type and illocution type	Assertive, Directive, Expressive, Commissive, or Declaratory Indirect Speech Act: Mismatch between sentence type and illocution type	More specific illocution type with paraphrased context	Illocutionary intent (i.e. communicative purpose) of larger sections of discourse These align with the "Speech Act Summary" headings	What the speaker intends for the address to think	What the speaker intends for the address to feel	What the speaker intends for the address to do

If an emendation or revocalization is preferred, that emendation or revocalization will be marked in the Hebrew text of all the visuals.

Emendations/Revocalizations legend
*Emended text*	Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is indicated by blue asterisks on either side of the emendation.
*Revocalized text*	Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is indicated by purple asterisks on either side of the revocalization.

Verse	Text (Hebrew)	Text (CBC) The Close-but-clear translation (CBC) exists to provide a window into the Hebrew text according to how we understand its syntax and word-to-phrase-level semantics. It is designed to be "close" to the Hebrew, while still being "clear." Specifically, the CBC encapsulates and reflects the following layers of analysis: grammar, lexical semantics, phrase-level semantics, and verbal semantics. It does not reflect our analysis of the discourse or of poetics. It is not intended to be used as a stand-alone translation or base text, but as a supplement to Layer-by-Layer materials to help users make full use of these resources.	Sentence type	Illocution (general)	Illocution with context	Macro speech act		Intended perlocution (Think)	Intended perlocution (Feel)	Intended perlocution (Do)	Speech Act Notes
1	לַמְנַצֵּחַ לִבְנֵי־קֹרַח מַשְׂכִּיל	For the director. By the Korahites. A maskil.	Superscription
2	אֱלֹהִים בְּאָזְנֵינוּ שָׁמַעְנוּ	God, we have heard [it] with our ears—	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting the account of God's past deeds.	Praising God for his past deliverances.	Grounding present pleas for deliverance in precedence.	Establishing common ground (knowledge of past events) with God.
	אֲבוֹתֵינוּ סִפְּרוּ־לָנוּ פֹּעַל	Our ancestors have recounted to us the deeds
	פָּעַלְתָּ בִימֵיהֶם בִּימֵי קֶדֶם	which you did in their times—in times long ago
3	אַתָּה יָדְךָ גּוֹיִם הוֹרַשְׁתָּ	You, by your strength, dispossessed nations,	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting God's past deliverances.			Reminding God of past deliverances.	Making God feel obligated to act in accordance with how he treated the previous generations.	Persuading God to act in accordance with past deliverances.
	וַתִּטָּעֵם	and then you planted them.	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting God's past deliverances.
	תָּרַע לְאֻמִּים	You would afflict the people groups,	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting God's past deliverances.
	וַתְּשַׁלְּחֵם	and then you would set them free.	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting God's past deliverances.
4	כִּי לֹא בְחַרְבָּם יָרְשׁוּ אָרֶץ	For they did not take possession of the land by means of their sword;	Declarative	Assertive	Denying human means of deliverances.			Reminding God of his previously manifested character.	Making God feel obligated to act in accordance with his character.	Persuading God to act in accordance to his previously manifested character.
	וּזְרוֹעָם לֹא־הוֹשִׁיעָה לָּמוֹ	nor did their power give victory for them.	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining the means of God's past deliverances.
	כִּי־יְמִינְךָ וּזְרוֹעֲךָ וְאוֹר פָּנֶיךָ	But rather your right hand, and your power, and the light of your countenance [gave the victory];	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining the means of God's past deliverances.
	כִּי רְצִיתָם	for you were pleased with them.
5	אַתָּה־הוּא מַלְכִּי *אֱלֹהָי*	You are my king, my God,	Declarative	Commissive	Submitting to God's authority and power.	Proclaiming commitment to submit to God's kingship.	Claiming expectation of protection from the king.	Reminding God of his relationship with the psalmist (king-subject).	Appeasing the king (God) by submitting to his authority.	Persuading God to act as king on behalf of his subjects.	• To acknowledge God as king is to recognize his authority (see Story Behind). Thus, the declarative statement of this sentence is likely a commitment to submit to that authority (commissive) rather than simply a statement of fact (assertive).
	*מְצַוֶּה* יְשׁוּעוֹת יַעֲקֹב	commanding victory for Jacob!
6	בְּךָ צָרֵינוּ נְנַגֵּחַ	With you, we can gore our adversaries;	Declarative	Assertive	Identifying the true means of deliverance.	Extolling God's power.		Informing God of his people's trust in him.	Making God conscientious for those who trust him.	Persuading God to act on behalf of those who trust him.
	בְּשִׁמְךָ נָבוּס קָמֵינוּ	under your authority, we can tread down our enemies.	Declarative	Assertive	Identifying the true means of deliverance.
7	כִּי לֹא בְקַשְׁתִּי אֶבְטָח	Indeed, I cannot trust in my bow,	Declarative	Expressive	Denying trust in human power.	Expressing confidence in God's power to assist.					• As a statement of the psalmist's psychological state, this declarative sentence serves as an expressive illocution.
	וְחַרְבִּי לֹא תוֹשִׁיעֵנִי	nor can my sword give me victory.	Declarative	Expressive	Denying trust in human power.						• Standing on its own, v. 7b could be construed as an assertive illocution. However, taken in parallel with v. 7a, it likely continues the expression of trust of the preceding line.
8	כִּי הוֹשַׁעְתָּנוּ מִצָּרֵינוּ	But rather you delivered us from our adversaries;	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining the deficiency of human power, in contrast to God's power.
	וּמְשַׂנְאֵינוּ הֱבִישׁוֹתָ	and you put our enemies to shame.	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining the deficiency of human power, in contrast to God's power.
9	בֵּאלֹהִים הִלַּלְנוּ כָל־הַיּוֹם	We have been boasting in God all day long,	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting previous pattern of praising God.	Proclaiming commitment to praise God.	Grounding pleas for deliverance in fulfillment of covenant obligations.		Pleasing God with worship.	Persuading God to act on behalf of his worshippers.
	וְשִׁמְךָ לְעוֹלָם נוֹדֶה סֶלָה	and we will keep declaring your name forever. Selah.	Declarative	Commissive	Proclaiming future commitment to praise God.						• The prepositional phrase לְעוֹלָם "forever; from now on" makes this statement a commitment to future action (commissive).
10	אַף־זָנַחְתָּ	Even so, you have rejected [us]—	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming God's rejecting as cause of defeat.	Appealing to God's honor among the nations.	Lamenting to provide grounds for pleading.	Informing God of the nation's current predicament.	Making God sympathetic towards his people and indignant towards the enemy nations.	Persuading God to act on behalf of his suffering people.
	וַתַּכְלִימֵנוּ	that is, you have put us to shame.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing military defeat as shameful.
	וְלֹא־תֵצֵא בְּצִבְאוֹתֵינוּ	And you do not go forth with our armies.	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming God's abandoning as cause of military defeat.
11	תְּשִׁיבֵנוּ אָחוֹר מִנִּי־צָר	You make us retreat before the adversary,	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God causes military defeat.
	וּמְשַׂנְאֵינוּ שָׁסוּ לָמוֹ	and our enemies have plundered for themselves.	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God allows plundering.
12	תִּתְּנֵנוּ כְּצֹאן מַאֲכָל	You give us up as sheep for consumption,	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God makes Israel vulnerable as sheep.	Appealing to God's compassion.
	וּבַגּוֹיִם זֵרִיתָנוּ	and you have scattered us among the nations.	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God allows his people's captivity.
13	תִּמְכֹּר־עַמְּךָ בְלֹא־הוֹן	You sell your people without compensation,	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God devalues his people.
	וְלֹא־רִבִּיתָ בִּמְחִירֵיהֶם	and you have not made a profit by them.	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God devalues his people.
14	תְּשִׂימֵנוּ חֶרְפָּה לִשְׁכֵנֵינוּ	You turn us into an object of scorn to our neighbors—	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God causes Israel's humiliation.	Appealing to God's honor among the nations.
	לַעַג וָקֶלֶס לִסְבִיבוֹתֵינוּ	An object of scornful derision to those who surround us.
15	תְּשִׂימֵנוּ מָשָׁל בַּגּוֹיִם	You turn us into a parable among the nations—	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God causes Israel's humiliation.
	מְנֽוֹד־רֹ֝֗אשׁ *בַּלְאֻמִּים*	An object of pity among the people groups.
16	כָּל־הַיּוֹם כְּלִמָּתִי נֶגְדִּי	All day long, my shame is before me,	Declarative	Expressive	Lamenting the psalmist's humiliation.
17	וּבֹשֶׁת פָּנַי כִּסָּתְנִי מִקּוֹל מְחָרֵף וּמְגַדֵּף מִפְּנֵי אוֹיֵב וּמִתְנַקֵּם	and my shamefacedness has covered me, because of the voice of the reviling taunter, because of the vengeful enemy.	Declarative	Expressive	Lamenting the psalmist's humiliation.
18	כָּל־זֹאת בָּאַתְנוּ	All this has come upon us,	Declarative	Assertive	Summarizing the situation.	Alerting God to incongruity between covenant expectation and reality.	Protesting God's unprovoked actions against the nation.	Informing God of his people's innocence.	Making God affronted at the nation's unjust treatment.	Convincing God to reverse the nation's situation.
	וְלֹא שְׁכַחֲנוּךָ	even though we have not neglected you;	Declarative	Assertive	Denying guilt of covenant unfaithfulness.
	וְלֹא־שִׁקַּרְנוּ בִּבְרִיתֶךָ	Nor have we broken faith with your covenant.	Declarative	Assertive	Denying guilt of covenant unfaithfulness.
19	לֹא־נָסוֹג אָחוֹר לִבֵּנוּ	Our heart has not backslid—	Declarative	Assertive	Denying guilt of immoral behavior.
	וַתֵּט אֲשֻׁרֵינוּ מִנִּי אָרְחֶךָ	that is, our steps have not deviated from your path.	Declarative	Assertive	Denying guilt of immoral behavior.
20	כִּי דִכִּיתָנוּ בִּמְקוֹם תַּנִּים	Yet you have crushed us in the place of jackals,	Declarative	Assertive	Accusing God of causing Israel's desolation.			Informing God of the unjust treatment of his people.	Making God sympathetic towards his people.	Persuading God to act on behalf of his suffering people.
	וַתְּכַס עָלֵינוּ בְצַלְמָוֶת	and thus you have covered us with deepest shadow.	Declarative	Assertive	Accusing God of causing Israel's desolation.
21	אִם־שָׁכַחְנוּ שֵׁם אֱלֹהֵינוּ	If we have neglected our God's name—	Interrogative	Assertive	Arguing that the nation's guilt cannot be proven.			Convincing God that the nation is innocent.	Making God affronted at the nation's unjust treatment.	Convincing God to reverse the nation's situation.	• As a rhetorical question, the interrogative sentence serves as an assertive argument of the nation's innocence. • Whereas vv. 18–19 inform God of the people's innocence by means of statements of fact, the rhetorical appeal to logic here attempts to convince God of the truthfulness of this claim.
	וַנִּפְרֹשׂ כַּפֵּינוּ לְאֵל זָר	that is, if we had spread our palms in prayer to another god—
22	הֲלֹא אֱלֹהִים יַחֲקָר־זֹאת	could not God investigate this,
	כִּי־הוּא יֹדֵעַ תַּעֲלֻמוֹת לֵב	since he knows the heart's secrets?
23	כִּי־עָלֶיךָ הֹרַגְנוּ כָל־הַיּוֹם	Yet we have been killed because of you all day long.	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God causes Israel's threat of death.				Making God sympathetic towards his people.	Persuading God to act on behalf of his suffering people.
	נֶחְשַׁבְנוּ כְּצֹאן טִבְחָה	We are considered as sheep to be slaughtered.	Declarative	Assertive	Claiming that God causes Israel's threat of death.
24	עוּרָה	Awake!	Imperative	Directive	Pleading for God to take action.	Pleading for God to take action.	Pleading for God's deliverance.		Making God indignant at the suggestion that he is sleeping.	Persuading God to take action.
	לָמָּה תִישַׁן אֲדֹנָי	Why do you sleep, Lord?	Interrogative	Expressive	Accusing God of inaction.						• Depicting God as asleep is an emotional expression, rather than a declaration of theological fact (Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 800).
	הָקִיצָה	Wake up!	Imperative	Directive	Pleading for God to take action.
	אַל־תִּזְנַח לָנֶצַח	Do not keep rejecting [us] forever!	Imperative	Directive	Pleading for God's favor.
25	לָמָּה־פָנֶיךָ תַסְתִּיר	Why are you hiding your countenance?	Interrogative	Expressive	Accusing God of witholding his favor.	Appealing to God's relationship with his people.			Making God sympathetic towards his people's spiritual depression.	Persuading God to act on behalf of his suffering people.	• Similar to the image of sleeping (see note on v. 24b), the depiction of God hiding his face is an emotional expression, rather than a statement of theological fact.
	תִּשְׁכַּח עָנְיֵנוּ וְלַחֲצֵנוּ	Why are you neglecting our affliction and oppression?	Interrogative	Expressive	Accusing God of neglect.						• Similar to the image of sleeping (see note on v. 24b), the depiction of God's neglect is an emotional expression, rather than a statement of theological fact.
26	כִּי שָׁחָה לֶעָפָר נַפְשֵׁנוּ	For our soul has sunk down into the dust;	Declarative	Expressive	Lamenting the nation's spiritual depression.	Appealing to God's compassion.					• Rather than a depiction of a physical situation, the reference to נֶפֶשׁ "soul" likely points to a spiritual/emotional reality. Thus, the declarative statement functions as an expressive illocution.
	דָּבְקָה לָאָרֶץ בִּטְנֵנוּ	our belly clings to the earth.	Declarative	Expressive	Lamenting the nation's spiritual depression.
27	קוּמָה עֶזְרָתָה לָּנוּ	Arise to our aid,	Imperative	Directive	Pleading for God's assistance.	Pleading for God's deliverance.		Reminding God of his covenant relationship with his people.		Persuading God to act on behalf of his covenant people.
	וּפְדֵנוּ לְמַעַן חַסְדֶּךָ	and redeem us because of your faithfulness!	Imperative	Directive	Pleading for God's redemption.