Psalm 31 Poetics

Psalm Overview

• Grammar
• Semantics
• Story behind the Psalm
• Discourse
• Poetics

About the Poetics Layer

Exploring the Psalms as poetry is crucial for understanding and experiencing the psalms and thus for faithfully translating them into another language. This layer is comprised of two main parts: poetic structure and poetic features. (For more information, click 'Expand' to the right.)

Poetic Structure

In poetic structure, we analyse the structure of the psalm beginning at the most basic level of the structure: the line (also known as the “colon” or “hemistich”). Then, based on the perception of patterned similarities (and on the assumption that the whole psalm is structured hierarchically), we argue for the grouping of lines into verses, verses into strophes, strophes into stanzas, etc. Because patterned similarities might be of various kinds (syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, sonic) the analysis of poetic structure draws on all of the previous layers (especially the Discourse layer).

Poetic Features

In poetic features, we identify and describe the “Top 3 Poetic Features” for each Psalm. Poetic features might include intricate patterns (e.g., chiasms), long range correspondences across the psalm, evocative uses of imagery, sound-plays, allusions to other parts of the Bible, and various other features or combinations of features. For each poetic feature, we describe both the formal aspects of the feature and the poetic effect of the feature. We assume that there is no one-to-one correspondence between a feature’s formal aspects and its effect, and that similar forms might have very different effects depending on their contexts. The effect of a poetic feature is best determined (subjectively) by a thoughtful examination of the feature against the background of the psalm’s overall message and purpose.

Poetics Visuals for Psalm 31

Poetic Structure

Poetic Macro-structure

Notes

There is widespread disagreement over the poetic structure of Psalm 31. As a result, scholars argue for anywhere between two and seven major sections of the psalm.

• 2 Sections: vv. 2-9 and 10-25 (DeClaisse-Walford 2014, 300); vv. 2-19 and vv. 20-25 (Craigie 2004, 258-259); and vv. 2-21 and 22-25 (Dion 1987, 186).
• 3 Sections: vv. 2-9; 10-21; 22-25 (Brueggemann 2014, 157); and vv. 2-9; 10-19; 20-25 (Laberge 1985, 147).
• 4 Sections: vv. 2-9; 10-15; 16-23; 24-25 (Lugt 2006, 317).
• 5 Sections: vv. 2-5; 6-9; 10-13; 14-19; 20-25 (Briggs 1906, 263); and vv. 2-5; 6-9; 10-14; 15-21; 22-25 (Fokkelmann 2000, 124-128).
• 7 Sections: vv. 2-7; 8-9; 10-14; 15-16; 17-19; 20-23; 24-25 (Villanueva 2016, Psalm 31).

The most dramatic shift in the psalm occurs between v. 23 and v. 24. The first twenty-three verses are dominated by first person (64x) and second person singular (43x) references. In contrast, the final two verses address the audience directly with second person plural references (2 imperatives; 1 pronominal suffix). Further support for dividing the psalm into two major but disproportionate sections comes from the distribution of the divine name. The epithet YHWH occurs seven times in vv. 2-23. It occurs an additional three times in vv. 24-25.

• vv. 2-23: Ps 31:2-23 are bound together by the frequent use of 1st and 2nd person singular references. Additionally, the epithet YHWH appears 7 times, a number commonly associated with completion. This section consists of five subsections (vv. 2-5, 6-9, 10-15, 16-19, 20-23) that form a chiasm centered around the psalmist's poor physical condition. Further demonstrating the psalm's structural design, the beginning of each subsection in the psalm, including vv. 24-25, begin with a vocative.

A) vv. 2-5: Refuge in YHWH

B) vv. 6-9: Trust in YHWH

C) vv. 10-15: The psalmist's reproach

B') vv. 16-19: Trust in YHWH

A') vv. 20-23: Refuge in YHWH

vv. 2-5: The first section of the psalm (vv. 2-5) begins with a vocative (יְהוָ֣ה). The unit has several features that bind it together. First, the theme of rescue is a prominent feature throughout (פַלְּטֵֽנִי ,הַצִּ֫ילֵ֥נִי ,לְהוֹשִׁיעֵֽנִי ,תּוֹצִיאֵ֗נִי). Second, refuge and rocky imagery is prominent as well (מָ֭עוֹז ,מְצוּד֗וֹת ,סַלְעִ֣י ,לְֽצוּר) (Dion 1987, 186). The final imperative in v. 3 unites the whole unit together. The psalmist asks YHWH to be a rock of refuge (לְֽצוּר־מָ֭עוֹז) and a fortress (לְבֵ֥ית מְצוּד֗וֹת) for him. In 4a and 5b, the psalmist declares that YHWH is a fortress (וּמְצוּדָתִ֣י) and a refuge (מָֽעוּזִּֽי) for him. The inversion of the word order creates a chiasm focused around the psalmist's request.

vv. 6-9: The second section of the psalm (vv. 6-9) begins in a similar manner to the first section. The first word is בְּיָדְךָ֮, which is sounds similar to בְּךָ֖ (v. 2) (Fokkelman 2000, 124). Additionally, verse six contains the psalm's second vocative (יְהוָ֗ה). The opening and closing of this section is also marked by an inclusio. The psalmist begins by placing entrusting his spirit into YHWH's hand. He ends the section by thanking YHWH for not delivering him into the hand of his enemy. Additionally, he thanks YHWH for placing his feet in a broad place. Thus, the section plays with both the contrast between YHWH's hand and the enemy's hand and the idea of hands and feet. Finally, the section is marked by the frequent use of 2ms qatal verbs in the first position (6b, 7a, 8b, 8c, 9a, 9b) (cf., Dion 1987, 187)

vv. 10-14: As with the preceding two sections, the psalm's third section begins with a vocative (יְהוָה֮). This section is marked by the density of first person singular references (Dion 1987, 187). Notably, besides the last two verses that introduce new participants, this is the only section in the psalm in which the second person singular is absent. Next, vv. 10-14 contain only qatal verbs (Fokkelman 2000, 125). Additionally, the section opens and closes with a reference to the psalmist's soul (נַפְשִׁ֣י).

vv. 15-17: The fourth section of the psalm also includes a vocative (יְֽהוָ֗ה) in the first line. The section has numerous lexical parallels with vv. 6-9. It repeats the line from v. 7b (וַאֲנִ֤י ׀ עָלֶ֣יךָ בָטַ֣חְתִּי יְהוָ֑ה) and also contrasts YHWH's hand (בְּיָדְךָ֥) with the hand of the psalmist's enemies (מִיַּד־א֝וֹיְבַ֗י). Finally, it repeats the key words "faithfulness" (בְחַסְדֶּֽךָ) and "save me" (ה֖וֹשִׁיעֵ֣נִי)

vv. 18-23: The fifth section of the psalm begins with another vocative (יְֽהוָ֗ה). Additionally, the section calls back to the beginning of the psalm (v. 2) in several ways. First, it repeats key words (אֵ֭בוֹשָׁה and לַחֹסִ֣ים בָּ֑ךְ). Though not repeated roots, vv. 18-23 also contains the theme of shelter (e.g., [תַּסְתִּירֵ֤ם ׀ בְּסֵ֥תֶר ,בְּסֻכָּ֗ה ,בְּעִ֣יר מָצֽוֹר]) that ties the fifth section back to the first section. This section consists of three smaller subsections:

vv. 18-19: The first subsection of vv. 18-23 contains a series of three third masculine singular jussives. The theme of silence further binds the verses together.

vv. 20-21: The second subsection of vv. 18-23 begins with a declaration of God's goodness that counters the abundant lies heard by the psalmist when he was surrounded (v. 14). The repetition of צפן forms an inclusio for the section.

vv. 22-23: The third subsection of vv. 18-23 is tied together with וַאֲנִ֤י. It expresses the psalmist's thoughts while he was in a besieged city. He praises YHWH for hearing his cries even though he thought he had been cut off from YHWH.

• vv. 24-25: The sixth and final section of the psalm continues the pattern of beginning with a vocative (כָּֽל־חֲסִ֫ידָ֥יו). Additionally, these lines mark the first time the psalmist shifts his focus to the audience. They are marked by the 2mp imperatives (אֶֽהֱב֥וּ; חִ֭זְקוּ) and the 2mp suffix (לְבַבְכֶ֑ם). They are the only imperatives that are not addressed to YHWH (Lugt 2006, 317). Also, the divine name (YHWH) appears three times in these verses. It appears seven times in vv. 2-23. Finally, the two verses are bound together by an inclusio (כָּֽל plus vocative).

Line Division

• v. 2: Ancient manuscripts provide two options for dividing this verse into lines. The Septuagint divides v. 2 into two lines, which follows the Masoretic accent marks. When the verse is divided into two lines it exhibits a symmetrical design. Both lines start with the following sequence: bet preposition > reference to YHWH > verb. The presence of extra words (καὶ ἐξελοῦ με), however, likely influenced the Septuagint's division of v. 2 into three lines. See the Grammar notes for a discussion of this text-critical issue.

(Preferred): A 9th century Hebrew manuscript supports dividing the verse into three lines (cf. Berlin Qu 680). Modern translators and most modern commentators adopt this approach and divide the verse according to the clause division. The three line division enhances the symmetry observed in the two-line division. The bet preposition begins the first and third lines of the verse. Additionally, the verbs alternate between the first and second position in each line.

| בְּךָ֖ יְהוָ֣ה חָ֭סִיתִי

| אַל־אֵב֣וֹשָׁה לְעוֹלָ֑ם

| בְּצִדְקָתְךָ֥ פַלְּטֵֽנִי ׃

• v. 3: As with v. 2, the ancient manuscripts provide two options for dividing v. 3. The Septuagint supports dividing the verse into four lines, while Berlin Qu 680 supports dividing it into three lines. According to the LXX's delineation, the first two clauses represent two lines (הַטֵּ֤ה אֵלַ֨י אָזְנְךָ֮ |מְהֵרָ֪ה הַצִּ֫ילֵ֥נִי). In contrast, these clauses represent one line in Berlin Qu 680. Unlike with v. 2, there are no text-critical issues to explain the different options. In instance, the Septuagint's delineation is preferred, because it continues the verbal pattern observed in the tri-partite division of v. 2 through the first three lines of the verse.

הַטֵּ֤ה אֵלַ֨י אָזְנְךָ֮

מְהֵרָ֪ה הַצִּ֫ילֵ֥נִי

הֱיֵ֤ה לִ֨י לְֽצוּר־מָ֭עוֹז

לְבֵ֥ית מְצוּד֗וֹת לְהוֹשִׁיעֵֽנִי׃

• v. 7: For a discussion of the emendation, see The Text of Psalm 31:7.
• v. 8: For a discussion of the emendation, see the grammar notes.
• v. 11: The Septuagint divides v. 11 into four lines. According to this delineation, the second and fourth line both begin with a waw conjunction. While this provides a sense of symmetry, the word count of the lines is inconsistent (4, 2, 3, 2). The Pss Scroll from Nahal Hever, however, divides the verse into two lines, which provides a stronger sense of symmetry. According to this delineation, the lines consistent of 6 and 5 words respectively. Additionally, the lines have an equal number of syllables (i.e., 15).
• v. 12: The ṣinnor on מְאֹד֮ is preceded by the azla legarmeh on וְלִשֲׁכֵנַ֨י. Moreover, the final line includes two clauses. While the atnach normally indicates a line division, the LXX and the vast majority of modern translations have four Hebrew words in the last line.
• v. 13: There is an interesting pattern in this verse that suggests it should be divided into three lines. The ending sounds follow this pattern: i (נִ֭שְׁכַּחְתִּי), e (כְּמֵ֣ת) | e (מִלֵּ֑ב), i (הָ֝יִ֗יתִי) | i (כִּכְלִ֥י), e (אֹבֵֽד). Pierre Auffret refers to this as a pivot pattern. The phrase מִלֵּ֑ב הָ֝יִ֗יתִי functions as a "double-duty modifier." Auffret suggests that the phrase refers to both comparisons in the verse (כִּכְלִ֥י; כְּמֵ֣ת) (Auffret 1978, 104-106).
• v. 14: The ṣinnor on רַבִּים֮ is preceded by the azla legarmeh on שָׁמַ֨עְתִּי.
• v. 20: The ṣinnor on טוּבְךָ֮ is preceded by the mehuppah on מָ֤ה.

Poetic Features

1. The Central Question

Feature

Psalm 31:2-23 is organized into a chiasm. Each section of the chiasm begins with the divine name as a vocative (vv. 2, 6, 10, 15, and 18). The final section of the psalm (vv. 24-25) sits outside of the chiasm, but it starts and ends with vocative references to those who trust in YHWH (v. 24a, 25b).

The first (vv. 2-5) and fifth (vv. 18-23) sections (A+A') of the chiasm are connected via several lexemes in v. 2 (בְּךָ֖ ,חָ֭סִיתִי ,אַל־אֵב֣וֹשָׁה) and vv. 18 and 20 (אַל־אֵ֭בוֹשָׁה, לַחֹסִ֣ים בָּ֑ךְ). Additionally, the theme of shelter appears prominently in both sections.

The second (vv. 6-9) and the fourth (vv. 15-17) sections (B+B') are also connected by lexical terms in vv. 6, 7, and 9 (בְּיָדְךָ֮ וַ֝אֲנִ֗י אֶל־יְהוָ֥ה בָּטָֽחְתִּי׃ בְּיַד־אוֹיֵ֑ב הוֹשַׁעְתָּ בְּחַ֫סְדֶּ֥ךָ) and vv. 15 and 16 (וַאֲנִ֤י ׀ עָלֶ֣יךָ בָטַ֣חְתִּי יְהוָ֑ה ,בְּיָדְךָ֥ ,מִיַּד־א֝וֹיְבַ֗י ה֖וֹשִׁיעֵ֣נִי בְחַסְדֶּֽךָ).

The third section (C) is unique in that, outside of the initial reference to YHWH in the vocative, the entire section is focused on the psalmist's physical frailty and social isolation.

The final two verses of the psalm (vv. 24-25) are separated from the chiasm. These are the only verses in which second plural imperatives appear.

Effect

Structural: The psalm uses vocatives to mark the beginning of each section in the psalm. The repeated use of YHWH as a vocative marks the chiasm off from the final two verses of the psalm, which begins and ends with a vocative.

Meaning: The psalm's chiastic structure contributes to its rhetorical agenda. The central section (C) isolates the psalmist and describes the shame he is experiencing as both a physical and social problem (vv. 10-14). This situation informs the primary question implied in the psalm: will YHWH allow the psalmist's shameful condition to continue? Sections B ( vv. 6-9) and B' (vv. 15-17) declare the psalmist's trust in YHWH. In contrast to the idol worshippers (v. 7), the psalmist knows that only YHWH can save him. The psalmist refuses to accept the situation described in vv. 10-14 as final; he shifts his mood dramatically in v. 15. He emphatically affirms his trust in YHWH. With the contrast between YHWH's hand (בְּיָדְךָ֥) and the hand of the enemies (מִיַּד־א֝וֹיְבַ֗י) in both sections, vv. 6-9 and 15-17 highlight the psalmist's desperate situation: his enemies threaten to overtake him. Sections A (vv. 2-5) and A' (vv. 18-23) both request that YHWH deal with the psalmist's shame. In vv. 2-5, the psalmist focuses on YHWH's ability to deliver from danger. In vv. 18-23, the psalmist adds a request that YHWH punish his enemies.

The effect of the chiastic structure emphasizes the existential problem the psalmist faced during the situation he has in mind. The panic he describes in v. 23 can explain the messiness of the chiasm. The theme of shelter dominates the A sections (vv. 2-5 // vv. 18-23). The theme of control dominates the B sections (vv.6-9 // vv. 15-17). The psalmist is at the center of the situation in the central C section (vv. 10-14). Ultimately, he realizes that YHWH is in control and so he does not have to remain in his panic. The desperate situation described in vv. 10-14 is surrounded and resolved by YHWH's presence in the rest of the psalm.

Consequently, he can shift his attention in vv. 24-25 towards his audience. Though outside of the chiasm, the final two verses provide a logical extension of the psalm (vv. 24-25). Since YHWH has protected the psalmist, the audience members should similarly trust YHWH for protection.

Poetic Features

2. YHWH (7+3)

Feature

The divine name (YHWH) appears a total of ten times in this psalm. It occurs seven times in vv. 2-23. The final two verses have the divine name three times. The distribution of the divine name corresponds to the sudden participant shift in vv. 24-25. Prior to these last two verses, the psalm does not use the second person plural. Additionally, the first person singular, which is prominent throughout the psalm, completely disappears in the final two verses.

7 and 3: The numbers 7 and 3 are commonly used throughout the Bible as structural devices. Seven often implies completion or perfection. Famously, the creation account consists of seven days (cf., Gen 4:15, 24; Ps 79:12). Three often functions as a superlative (cf., Isa 6:3; Rev 4:8).

Effect

Structural: The distribution of the divine name corresponds to the distribution of the psalm's participants and emphasizes YHWH's presence with those who trust him. YHWH is completely present with the psalmist (7x in vv. 2-23). The middle instance of YHWH's name occurs at the beginning of the psalmist's description of his darkest moment (v. 10). The fourth instance occurs as the psalmist emerges from this dark moment with a declaration of trust (v. 15; cf., the chiastic structure described in Feature #1). The final three occurrences of the divine name appear in vv. 24-25, which corresponds to a dramatic participant shift in the psalm. Just as YHWH surrounds the psalmist in his darkest moment (vv. 10, 15), YHWH forms an inclusio around the addressees of vv. 24-25. The divine name appears before the first vocative in v. 24 and after the last vocative in v. 25.

Symbolic: Throughout the psalm, the psalmist cries out for YHWH's protection. YHWH's perfect presence is indicated through the seven repetitions of his name. Though the psalmist feels socially isolated and in danger, YHWH is wholly with him. The distribution of the divine name contributes to this idea by surrounding the psalmist in his darkest moment (vv. 10, 15). At the end of the psalm, the psalmist encourages the audience to trust YHWH similarly. YHWH's name appears three times in the final verses (vv. 24-25). Three functions as a superlative (Isa 6:3; Rev 4:8). Those who wait for YHWH's deliverance, can take solace that he is with them. Just as YHWH surrounded the psalmist in his darkest moment, YHWH surrounds all his loyal ones and all who wait for him because he watches over the faithful.

Poetic Features

3. From Forgotten to Hidden

Feature

The majority of the psalm alternates between the first and second singular. Verses 10b-14 are an exception. This is the only section in the psalm where the psalmist is isolated from YHWH as evidenced by the lack of explicit references to YHWH or second person singular references. The divine name appears in the lines immediately before and after these verses (vv. 10b-14).

The opposite situation occurs in vv. 18b-22a where 1cs forms drop out. In this section, the psalmist focuses on YHWH's character and actions towards those who take refuge in Him.

Effect

The psalmist opens the psalm by declaring that he takes refuge in YHWH (v. 2). On several occasions, he describes himself as being surrounded by his enemies (v.14) or cut off from YHWH (v. 23).

In vv. 10b-14, the psalmist shows his isolation by not referencing YHWH. The content of these verses also represent the low point in the psalm. He describes himself as wasting away physically (v. 11) and as a social outcast (v. 12-13). He concludes the section with acknowledgment that his enemies want to kill him (v. 14). He feels utterly forgotten by YHWH.

The references to YHWH before and after this section (vv. 10, 15), along with the focus on YHWH's ability to function as his shelter (vv. 2-5, 18-23) and control the outcome (vv. 6-9, 15-17), symbolically represent how the psalmist shelters himself within YHWH's protective care. Even as the psalmist describes his physical deterioration and social isolation, he is symbolically surrounded by YHWH via the psalm's structure. Just when he fears he has been forgotten, David discovers he is safely hidden within YHWH's presence.

Verses 18b-22a may be understood as the psalmist's extrapolation from his discovery of being hidden in God. In contrast to vv. 10b-14, 1cs forms are entirely absent in vv. 18b-22a. In this way, acknowledges that his experience with YHWH's protection is afforded to anyone who takes refuge in YHWH.

Repeated Roots

The repeated roots table is intended to identify the roots which are repeated in the psalm.

For legend, click "Expand" to the right

Legend for Repeated Roots

• YHWH is the only root that reappears consistently across the psalm.
• Words repeat frequently throughout the psalm:
  • חַסְדֶּֽ occurs 4 times, which is the most common repeated root beside YHWH.
  • חסה, בוש, and צְדָקָה are three roots that spread across the largest part of the psalm between repetition. This may signify an important return to the toward the end of the psalm.

Bibliography

Auffret, Pierre (Sulpician priest). 1978. “Pivot Pattern: Nouveaux Exemples (Jon 2:10; Ps 31:13; Is 23:7): Vetus Testamentum.” Vetus Testamentum 28 (1): 103–10.

Briggs, Charles A., and Emilie Briggs. 1906. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Psalms. Vol. 1. ICC. Edinburgh: T & T Clark.

Brueggemann, Walter, and W. H. Bellinger. 2014. Psalms. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Craigie, Peter C. 2004. Word Biblical Commentary: Psalms 1–50. 2nd ed. Vol. 19. Nashville: Nelson Reference & Electronic.

DeClaissé-Walford, Nancy L., Rolf A. Jacobson, and Beth Laneel Tanner. 2014. “Book One of the Psalter: Psalms 1–41,” in The Book of Psalms, ed. E. J. Young, R. K. Harrison, and Robert L.

Dion, Paul-Eugène. 1987. “Strophic Boundaries and Rhetorical Structure in Psalm 31.” Église et Théologie 18 (2): 183–92.

Fokkelman, J. P. 2000. Major Poems of the Hebrew Bible: At the Interface of Hermeneutics and Structural Analysis. Studia Semitica Neerlandica. Assen, The Netherlands: Van Gorcum.

Laberge, Léo. 1985. “A Literary Analysis of Psalm 31.” Église et Théologie 16 (2): 147–68.

Lugt, Pieter van der. 2006. Cantos and Strophes in Biblical Hebrew Poetry: With Special Reference to the First Book of the Psalter. Vol. 1. 3 vols. Oudtestamentische Studiën 53. Leiden: Brill.

Roberts, J J M. 1975. “Niskahtî--Millēb, Ps 31:13: Vetus Testamentum.” Vetus Testamentum 25 (4): 797–801.

Scheumann, Jesse. 2020. “A Syntactic Analysis of Phrasal Coordination in Biblical Hebrew.” PhD Dissertation, January.

Villanueva, Federico G. 2016. Psalms 1-72. Carlisle, England: Langham Global Library.