Psalm 31 Discourse

Psalm Overview

• Grammar
• Semantics
• Story behind the Psalm
• Discourse
• Poetics

About the Discourse Layer

Our Discourse layer includes four analyses: macrosyntax, speech act analysis, emotional analysis, and participant analysis. (For more information, click 'Expand' to the right.)

Macrosyntax

The macrosyntax layer rests on the belief that human communicators desire their addressees to receive a coherent picture of their message and will cooperatively provide clues to lead the addressee into a correct understanding. So, in the case of macrosyntax of the Psalms, the psalmist has explicitly left syntactic clues for the reader regarding the discourse structure of the entire psalm. Here we aim to account for the function of these elements, including the identification of conjunctions which either coordinate or subordinate entire clauses (as the analysis of coordinated individual phrases is carried out at the phrase-level semantics layer), vocatives, other discourse markers, direct speech, and clausal word order.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Macrosyntax Creator Guidelines.

Speech Act Analysis

The Speech Act layer presents the text in terms of what it does, following the findings of Speech Act Theory. It builds on the recognition that there is more to communication than the exchange of propositions. Speech act analysis is particularly important when communicating cross-culturally, and lack of understanding can lead to serious misunderstandings, since the ways languages and cultures perform speech acts varies widely.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Speech Act Analysis Creator Guidelines.

Emotional Analysis

This layer explores the emotional dimension of the biblical text and seeks to uncover the clues within the text itself that are part of the communicative intent of its author. The goal of this analysis is to chart the basic emotional tone and/or progression of the psalm.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Emotional Analysis Creator Guidelines.

Participant Analysis

Participant Analysis focuses on the characters in the psalm and asks, “Who are the main participants (or characters) in this psalm, and what are they saying or doing? It is often helpful for understanding literary structure, speaker identification, etc.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Participant Analysis Creator Guidelines.

Discourse Visuals for Psalm 31

Macrosyntax

Notes

Paragraph Divisions

• Between vv. 14 and 15: Weani shifts the topic from the psalmist's adversaries back to the psalmist himself. Additionally, the following verses have a noticeable lack of waw conjunctions as compared to the preceding unit. Finally, it introduces the first instance of direct speech in the psalm.
• Between vv. 19 and 20: In addition to the exclamative in v. 20a, this discourse unit is marked by three subordinate clauses.
• Between vv. 23 and 24: Based on non-macrosyntactic observations, there is likely a break between vv. 23 and 24. These will be addressed in the appropriate layers.

Word Order

• v. 2a (בְּךָ֖) in you (Marked Focus): This bet preposition is frequently fronted before verb phrases involving חסה. It often indicates a restrictive focus (cf. Pss 7:2; 11:1; 141:8; 144:2). In this verse, it focuses the attention on YHWH, who will play a prominent role throughout the psalm.
• v. 2c (בְּצִדְקָתְךָ֥) in your righteousness; v. 3b (מְהֵרָ֪ה) quickly; (Poetic Reasons): The non-default word order in these lines are poetic in nature and not related to information structure. The clauses alternate with word order in vv. 2-3. In lines 1, 3 and 5, the verb appears at the end of the clause. In the other lines, the verb is in the expected clause initial position.
• v. 4c (וּלְמַ֥עַן שִׁ֝מְךָ֗) and for the sake of your name (Marked Focus): This phrase typically appears at the end of a clause (cf., 1 Kgs 8:41; Jer 14:7, 21; Pss 79:9; 109:21; 2 Chr 6:32). It stresses the reason the speaker requests that YHWH carefully escort him.
• v. 6b (בְּיָדְךָ֮) into your hand (Marked Focus): This phrase does not typically appear in the first position of a clause. In this verse, it stresses the location in which the psalmist has placed his trust (i.e., YHWH's hand).
• v. 7b (וַ֝אֲנִ֗י) but I (Marked Topic): The wa-ani shifts the topic of the verse from YHWH's hatred of idol worshippers to the psalmist and his trust in YHWH. For discussion of the text-critical issue, see The Text of Psalm 31:7.
• v. 7b (אֶל־יְהוָ֥ה) (to) YHWH (Marked Focus): In addition to the marked topic (וַ֝אֲנִ֗י), v. 7b also has marked focus (אֶל־יְהוָ֥ה).
• v. 11d (וַעֲצָמַ֥י) and my bones (Poetic): The word order in this clause is influenced by the poetic structure of vv. 10-11. The verb forms an inclusio (עָשְׁשָׁ֖ה [10a]; עָשֵֽׁשׁוּ [11d]). Additionally, if one assumes the elided verb in 11b (כָל֪וּ), the word order alternates in each line. Lines 11a and 11c exhibit default word order, and lines 10c, 11b, and 11d exhibit non-default word order. By fronting "my bones," the psalmist puts focus on an additional part of his body that has wasted away, so could also be read as additive, or, as the gloss provided, scalar focus.
• v. 12a (מִכָּל־צֹרְרַ֨י) from all my adversaries (Marked Focus): The topic of this sentence is the psalmist's becoming a reproach. The non-default word order puts the focus on the psalmist's adversaries.
• v. 12d (רֹאַ֥י בַּח֑וּץ) those who see me (Marked Topic): As with other sections of this psalm, the word order alternates between consecutive clauses in v. 12. Designations for the psalmist's social relationships alternate between non-default word order (in v. 12a, d) and (verb) gapped clauses (in v. 12b-c). Lunn notes the sequence in the clauses of verse 12 as follows: Marked-Gapped-Gapped-Marked) (Lunn 2006, 303). "Those who see me" is marked topic because it identifies a new set of characters who respond negatively to the psalmist.
• v. 14b (לָקַ֖חַת נַפְשִׁ֣י) to take my life (Marked Focus): The non-default word order in this line emphasizes the goal of the enemies' desire to plotting.
• v. 15a (וַאֲנִ֤י) but I (Marked Topic): Weani shifts the topic of from the adversaries' desire to kill the psalmist to the psalmist's declaration of trust in YHWH.
• v. 15a (עָלֶ֣יךָ) you (Marked Focus): In addition to the marked topic (וַ֝אֲנִ֗י), v. 7b also has marked focus (עָלֶ֣יךָ).
• v. 16a (בְּיָדְךָ֥) in your hand (Marked Focus): The non-default word order places the stress on the metaphorical location (i.e., YHWH's hand) that controls his existence (i.e., time).
• v. 23a (וַאֲנִ֤י) but I (Marked Topic): The non-default word order shifts the topic from YHWH's faithfulness to the psalmist's incorrect speech/thought.
• v. 24b (אֱ֭מוּנִים) the faithful (Poetic Reasons): The non-default word order in v. 24b-c is due to a chiastic structure.

אֱ֭מוּנִים (substantive)

נֹצֵ֣ר (participle)

יְהוָ֑ה (noun)

וּמְשַׁלֵּ֥ם עַל־יֶ֝֗תֶר (participle)

עֹשֵׂ֥ה גַאֲוָֽה (substantive)

Vocative and Discourse Markers

• v. 2: YHWH (יְהוָ֑ה) is in a clause-medial position. As such, it indicates that the preceding word (בְּךָ֖) is focussed (Miller 2010, 357).
• v. 6b: YHWH, God of faithfulness (יְהוָ֗ה אֵ֣ל אֱמֶֽת) is in a clause-final position, further delimiting the poetic line division between vv. 6b and 7a (Miller 2010, 360-363).
• v. 10: YHWH (יְהוָ֑ה) identifies the addressee of the psalmist's request. It also precedes a subordinate clause, which may, therefore, also focus the content of the subordinate clause (so Kim 2022, 235-237).
• v. 15: YHWH (יְהוָ֑ה) contributes to the delineation of v. 15. Without the vocative there would be two consecutive first common singular verbs (בָטַ֣חְתִּי אָ֝מַ֗רְתִּי). The vocative changes the intonation of the verse and clearly marks the shift to a new line (cf. Miller 2010, 360-363).
• v. 18: YHWH (יְהוָ֑ה) identifies the addressee of the psalmist's request (cf. Kim 2022, 213-217)
• v. 23: On several occasions, therefore" (אָכֵ֗ן) emphasizes the contrast between what the speaker said/thought about a situation and the reality (cf., Isa 49:4; Jer 3:20; Zeph 3:7; Pss 66:19; 82:7; Job 32:8) (BDB, 38).
• v. 24: Although, "all his faithful ones" (כָּֽל־חֲסִ֫ידָ֥יו) does not precede a clause with a formal subordinate marker, the apparent causal relationship between the two follow clauses suggests that this vocative should be understood to focus the content of the subordinate clause (cf., Kim 2022, 235-237).
• v. 25: "All who hope in YHWH" (כָּל־הַ֝מְיַחֲלִ֗ים לַיהוָֽה) is in a post-clause-nucleus position. As Miller notes, this position provides "rhetorical highlighting, though of a less specific nature [than focus]" (Miller 2010, 358).

Coordination & Subordination

• vv. 10-14 (כִּ֤י): The middle section of the psalm is marked by three subordinate conjunctions (כִּ֤י). Each one provides a reason the psalmist believes YHWH needs to be merciful to him (10b, 11a, and 14a).
• v. 15 (וַאֲנִ֤י): The waw conjunction at the beginning of v. 15 connects the psalmist's declaration with the preceding section (vv. 10-14). In vv. 10-14, the psalmist provides three reasons he is in desperate need of YHWH's mercy (v. 10a). In v. 15a, he declares his trust in YHWH in spite of his circumstances.
• v. 19b (הַדֹּבְר֖וֹת): As Waltke notes, the definite article can function as a relative clause marker when attached to participles (IBHS 13.5.2.d).
• v. 20b (פָּ֭עַלְתָּ): As numerous modern translations suggest, the relative marker (אֲשֶׁר) in the preceding clause introduces a compound subordinate clause (cf. NRSV, ESV, NIV, JPS, ELB, LUT, ZB, NBS, NVS, BDS, RVR, BTX). God's "goodness" is the implied direct object of both verbs (צָפַנְתָּ פָּעַלְתָּ). Two pieces of evidence support this reading of the grammar. First, the second verb does not have an explicit direct object. It appears to be related to טוּבְךָ. Second, the structure of the verse suggests both verbs are related to טוּבְךָ (i.e., both verbs are followed by a lamed preposition attached to a substantive).

Speech Act Analysis

Summary Visual

Speech Act Chart

Notes

• vv. 6-9: This section could be further divided into two smaller sections. In verses 6-7, the psalmist draws a contrast between himself and idol worshippers. Since YHWH hates idol worshippers, the psalmist's implies that YHWH should act favorably toward him.

In verses 8-9, the psalmist describes YHWH's faithfulness to him in similar situations he has experienced before. Consequently, he trusts YHWH will act graciously toward him again.

• vv. 10-14: Lament is the primary illocution of these verses. The psalmist is describing his pitiful physical and social condition. The reason he expresses himself in this manner, however, is to explain why YHWH should have mercy on him. Therefore, the whole section can be gathered under the global speech act of "pleading for mercy" (cf. Bratcher 1991, 294).
• vv. 10b-11b: There is a series bet prepositions in these clauses. The first (בְכַ֥עַס "because of anger" v. 10b) and the fourth one (בַּעֲוֺנִ֣י "because of my iniquity" v. 11b) provide the reasons for David's poor physical condition. The specific speech act for vv. 10b and 11b explain why David's health is failing. However, they serve in a larger sense as a part of his lament.
• vv. 10b-11b: The verbs in vv. 16b-18a are imperatives, and the verbs in vv. 18b-19b are cohortatives. Since David cannot control whether YHWH acts on his behalf, all of these verbs are best understood as David's request to YHWH.
• vv. 20a: Formally, the sentence is an interrogative. However, it is a rhetorical question meant to assert the greatness of YHWH.
• vv. 23a: In this verse, the psalmist quotes himself. He expresses his panic, but he does so to assert that his panic was misguided. YHWH heard his cry for mercy and protected him.

Emotional Analysis

Summary visual

Emotional Analysis Chart

Participant analysis

There are 6 participants/characters in Psalm 31:

• David: During his time as the king of Israel, David faced many conflicts and endured hardship. He fled as a fugitive from King Saul (1 Sam 19:8ff) and faced exile during Absalom's coup (2 Sam 15:1ff). While nothing in this psalm identifies a particular event in David's life as the inspiration for the poem, one could imagine any number of scenarios from his life as the background for this psalm.
• Enemies: As with the specific event in David's life, nothing in this psalm identifies a specific set of enemies. Instead, they are characterized in general terms. They are opposed to YHWH (cf. v. 7) and seek to trap and kill David physically (vv. 5, 14). When the enemies are described in relation to the righteous, David describes them as liars (vv. 19, 21) and people who act pridefully (v. 24).

Participant Relations Diagram

The relationships among the participants may be abstracted and summarized as follows:

Participant Analysis Table

Notes

• v. 1: David or Anonymous Psalmist?

David is never mentioned by name outside of the superscription. The meaning לְדָוִֽד influences one's decision about the primary speaker of this entire psalm. Is it David? Or is it an anonymous psalmist? For a full discussion of this issue, see the exegetical issue on ledavid.

• v. 7: "You hate" or "I hate"

The text-critical issue in this verse has a direct impact on identifying the participant. Many modern translations have "I hate" (i.e., David). Numerous ancient manuscripts have "You hate" (i.e., YHWH). For discussion of the text-critical issue, see The Text of Psalm 31:7.

• v. 7: "Those who worship" = "enemies"?

Should we understand "those who worship" idols in v. 7 as synonymous with the "enemies" referred to throughout the psalm? David understands the idol worshippers to be in conflict with YHWH (cf. 7a). One might assume that the idol worshippers are a subset of David's enemies. However, the two sets of participants are not necessarily synonymous. It is possible that idol worshippers could be opposed to YHWH without simultaneously functioning as David's enemies. For this reason, "those who worship" should be understood as related to but not synonymous with David's enemies in the psalm.

• v. 12: "Neighbors," "friends," and "those who see me" = "adversaries"?

The "adversaries" mentioned in v. 12a are synonymous with David's enemies referenced in other parts of the psalm. This fact, however, does not mean that his "neighbors," "friends," and "those who see" him are synonymous with his adversaries. Instead, David is suggesting that all of his social relationships are affected by the situation he is enduring because of his enemies. For this reason, David's "neighbors," "friends," and "those who see" him should be treated as a separate set of related participants in the psalm. They represent a distinct group from the enemies. Additionally, they represent three different subsets of this different participant set.

• vv. 18-19, 21, 24: "The evil ones," "the lying lips," "human," "disputing tongues," and "those who act pridefully"

Should these participants be understood as synonymous with David's enemies, or are they just related? Starting with v. 18b, the tone of David's speech shifts. He begins to speak in general terms about the enemies of the righteous. None of these participants are described as David's direct enemies, as is evidenced by the lack of first person singular pronouns or verbs attached to any of these participants. As with the identity of "those who worship" idols in v. 7, the participants described in vv. 18-19, 21, and 24 are related to but not synonymous with David's enemies.

* v. 22: Who is the audience? David or the righteous?

Verse 22 fits oddly in the psalm. Whereas the preceding verses and verse 23 almost exclusively refer to YHWH in the second person, v. 22 utilizes the third person singular to refer to him. Since vv. 24-25 refer to YHWH with the third person and are clearly addressed to the righteous, one may wonder whether v. 22 should also be addressed to the righteous. Laberge suggests this is the case based on his organization of the psalm. He argues that vv. 22-25 are related to one another and are directed to the external audience. His proposal, however, shifts the problem to v. 23, which raises the following question: why would the psalmist address YHWH directly in the middle of a section addressed to the righteous? (cf. Dion 1987, 190-192; Laberge 1985, 163). While it is possible to understand v. 22 as addressed to "the righteous," it raises unsolvable problems in the psalm.

Another option is to treat v. 22 as an interjection from David intended to address himself. According to this approach, David declares to himself that YHWH is blessed and has been good to him even when he was surrounded. This is the preferred option for two reasons. First, v. 22 does not mention the righteous or refer to an external audience with the third person (cf. vv. 24-25). Second, he refers to himself in the first person and YHWH in the third person. Considering the usage of personal pronouns in v. 22, it seems most likely that David has interjected a reflective comment into a broader speech act directed at YHWH.

• vv. 24-25: Just the righteous or Israel too?

The people of Israel are never directly mentioned in this psalm. Why should the audience be identified as "Israel" and not just the "righteous"? The superscription is the key piece of evidence. The reference to the director of music indicates that this psalm was meant to be performed in a cultic context.

Participant Distribution Table

The table below demonstrates the participant distribution throughout Psalm 31.

Notes

• The psalmist is always referred to in the first person. References to the psalmist almost completely stop in v. 19. The only exception is v. 23.
• YHWH is primarily referred to in the second person, until the very end of the psalm. In vv. 22 and 24-25, YHWH is referred to using the third person.
• The enemies appear in v. 5 and then reappear in nearly every other verse throughout the rest of the psalm.
• The Righteous do not appear until the end of the psalm (vv. 19-25). The righteous never overlaps with the psalmist in a verse.

Bibliography

Dion, Paul-Eugène. 1987. “Strophic Boundaries and Rhetorical Structure in Psalm 31.” Église et Théologie 18 (2): 183–92.

Laberge, Léo. 1985. “A Literary Analysis of Psalm 31.” Église et Théologie 16 (2): 147–68.