About the Semantics Layer[ ]

Semantics is the study of how language is used to represent meaning. The goal of semantic analysis for interpreting and translating the Bible is to understand the meaning of words and how they relate to each other in context. We want to understand what is implicit about word meaning – and thus assumed by the original audience – and make it explicit – and thus clear for us who are removed by time, language, and culture. The semantics layer is composed of three major branches: lexical semantics, phrase-level semantics and verbal semantics. (Click 'Expand' to the right for more information.)

About Lexical Semantics[ ]

One major branch of semantic study is lexical semantics, which refers to the study of word meanings. It examines semantic range (=possible meanings of a word), the relationship between words (e.g. synonymy, hyponymy), as well as the relationship between words and larger concepts (conceptual domains). One component of our approach involves not only the study of the Hebrew word meaning, but also of our own assumptions about word meaning in modern languages. Because the researcher necessarily starts with their own cultural assumptions (in our case, those of Western-trained scholars), this part of the analysis should be done afresh for every culture.

For a detailed description of our method, see the Lexical Semantics Creator Guidelines.

About Phrase-level Semantics[ ]

The Phrase-level Semantics layer analyses the meaning of syntactic units which are larger than the level of the word and smaller than the level of the clause. Specifically, this layer analyses the meaning of prepositional phrases (e.g., לְאִישׁ), construct phrases (e.g., אִישׁ אֱלֹהִים), phrases formed by a coordinating waw conjunction (e.g., אִישׁ וְאִשָּׁה) and noun phrases which consist of a noun plus a determiner (e.g., הָאִישׁ) or a quantifier (e.g., כֹּל אִישׁ).

For a detailed description of our method, see the Phrase-level Semantics Creator Guidelines.

About Verbal Semantics[ ]

This sub-layer focuses on the relationship between verbs, time and modality. These are important categories for interpretation and translation, and how one analyses a verb can have a significant effect on how it is rendered. This sub-layer has been through several iterations, as it strives to accomplish two things: (1) Transparency for the native Hebrew structures, and (2) Transparency for the interpretation necessary to translate the verbal semantics into other languages.

For a detailed description of our method, see the Verbal Semantics Creator Guidelines.

Semantics Visuals for Psalm 31[ ]

Lexical and Phrase-level Semantics Diagram[ ]

For legend, click "Expand" to the right

	Prepositional phrase	Construct chain	Construct chain within a prepositional phrase	Phrase-level waw	Article and כֹּל
Diagram Shading
Definition	- A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition plus its object. The phrase usually modifies the clause or another constituent in the clause.	- A construct chain, also called a 'genitive phrase', is a grammatical encoding of the relationship 'A of B,' in which A is a phonologically modified noun (in the construct state), and B is a phonologically unmodified noun (the absolute state).	- Some construct chains occur within prepositional phrases	- A waw conjunction can join units of all sizes. Phrase level waw join units at the word or phrase level (i.e., below the level of the clause).	- Definite articles tell you something about the identifiability or inclusiveness about the word it is attached to - כֹּל is a quantifier that tells you about the scope of a word it is attached to

See our growing collection of Venn Diagrams, not only for Psalm 23, but for all of the psalms.
See SDBH on Psalm 31.

v. 1[ ]

See Lamnaṣṣēaḥ for a discussion of לַמְנַצֵּחַ.
See Ledavid for a discussion of לְדָוִד.

v. 2[ ]

חָסִיתִי (take shelter >> seek protection): As Gamberoni notes, when this verb appears in the psalter it is frequently in the petition portions of psalms of lament and thanksgiving psalms. Outside of explicitly theological contexts, the verb refers to animals seeking protection (Ps 104:18), the authority of a king (Judg 9:15), inclusion in the Israelite religion and society (Ruth 2:12), and the activity of the poor (Job 24:8). Gamberoni suggests these passages document "a kind of semantic bandwidth: protection, sometimes from acute danger, but with a clear tendency in the direction of “shelter,” whether in nature, an institution, or a society. Here is also an element of movement or “flight” implied, in that there is constant necessary variation among the locations that constitute the habitat" (TDOT 1986, 5:166-167).

The term frequently appears in contexts describing YHWH as a rock (cf. Deut 32:37; 2 Sam 22:3; Ps. 18:3; 144:2; cf. Zion Isa 14:32).

אֵבוֹשָׁה ("be ashamed"): As Horst Seebass notes, בוש "has a passive connotation." Seebass points to 2 Sam 19:6 as an example. When David grieved the death of Absolom, he neglected those loyal to him. They experienced shame because the person they placed their trust in was not living up to his responsibilities in the relationship. Hence, their shame was not due to their own fault but to the shortcomings of their king A similar situation can be understood when בוש is used in a petition to YHWH. The cultures surrounding Israel were polytheistic. Israelite monotheism represented a certain risk. By only directing petitions to one god, the petitioner risked being shamed his deity did not act. Consequently, David's petition to not be put to shame in Ps 31 may be understood as a desire for his faith in YHWH to be vindicated (TDOT 1977, 2:52-53). See this Venn diagram for בוש.
פַלְּטֵנִי ("rescue"): Some modern translations define this term as "save" (cf. NLT, GNT, REB; rette in Luther 2017, HFA, NGÜ, ELB, EÜ, GNB, ZÜR). As Hasel notes, the LXX frequently translates פלט with verbs related to "saving" (TDOT 2001 11:557). In Christian contexts, the verb "to save" often implies a spiritual context. The Hebrew term פלט, however, is primarily used as a petition for rescue from physically dangerous situations. Hasel further notes, "The use of the terms plṭ and mlṭ shows that God is the delivering savior of all who are oppressed, afflicted, persecuted, suffering, or falsely accused. Therefore those who are in peril may turn to God with a plea for help: 'In your righteousness deliver me' (31:2[1]; 71:2). Deliverance leads to thanksgiving (22 with plṭ/mlṭ in Pss5–6, 9[4–5, 8]) and praise (22:23, 26[22, 25]; 107:32 [mlṭ in v. 20]; 40:10–11[9–10] [plṭ in v. 18])" (TDOT 2001 11:561).

In Ps 31:2, God is the subject of פלט and David (i.e., a human) is the object. Similar structures are seen in Ps 22:5, 9; 37:40 71:2 91:14 (HALOT, 931).

v. 3[ ]

הַטֵּה (turn >> listen) connotes physical movement (i.e., to stretch, to strike, to bend. etc.) (HALOT, 692). See also SDBH: "literally: to bend (one's) ear; hence: = action by which humans or deities make a conscious effort to listen to what (other) humans say -- to incline (one's) ear; to listen" (SDBH). When the verb appears in the Hiphil it sometimes occurs with אֹזֶן. It insinuates that someone physically turns their head so they are in a position most conducive to paying attention to the speaker's words. Both humans (cf. Prov. 4:20; 5:1; 22:17) and the deity (2 Kgs 19:16; Pss 17:6; 71:2; 86:1; 88:3[2]; 102:3[2]; Dan 9:18) perform this action. Modern translations differ over how to translate this word as well as the phrase. Some try to retain some sense of the bodily movement with words like "incline" (cf. NRSV, ESV, JPS 1984) and "turn" (NIV, NLT, NJB). Others emphasize the movement's purpose: listening/hearing (cf. CEV, NET, GNT). Interestingly, the REB attempts to do both: "bend down and hear" (TDOT 1998, 9:384-385). In English, the word "incline" is uncommon. The psalmist's request is that YHWH will pay attention to him. The implied assumption is that YHWH is not focused on the psalmist at the time of his request. "Turn" better captures the physical movement (cf. other examples of the Hiphil meaning "turn;" Num 22:23; 2 Sam 3:27; 6:10). Ultimately, translations that capture the effect of YHWH's turning (i.e., listening) provide the best translation of the word.
הַצִּילֵנִי ("rescue"): SDBH defines this term as a "causative action by which humans or deities remove (other) humans or objects from a dangerous or life-threatening situation -- to deliver; to rescue" (SDBH). The NIV, NLT, and ESV all translate the term as "rescue." The NET has "deliver," and the GNT and CEV have "save me." A term that emphasizes the physical danger implied by the verb is better than words that are more theological in nature. נצל is another term in the psalm related to some type of deliverance from a dangerous situation. נָצַל can relate to both physical deliverance (cf. 1 Sam 12:21; Prov 19:19; Isa 50:2; Jer 39:17) and spiritual transgressions (cf. Pss 39:9; 51:16; 119:170) (BDB, 664-665).
בֵית ("house"): The term bayit (בית) is quite flexible in Hebrew. It often refers to a single dwelling, but it can also be used to as a metonym for a person's possessions, a family unit, a tribe, and even the whole nation. In certain uses, it can refer to the temple, a palace, or even a particular part of a building complex. In this verse, the term is not referring to a single dwelling for a particular family since it is in construct with the a plural noun (מְצוּדוֹת) meaning "strongholds." Rather, it seems to be referring to "a complex of strongholds." In English, "fortress" reflects this idea well (cf. NIV, NLT, ESV).
מָעֹוז ("refuge"): "large fortification; for the defense of a town; built of stone; could consist of one extra strong building or of a complex of buildings surrounded by its own strong wall; ≈ associated with protection and security and often used as an epithet for God -- fortress, refuge" (SDBH, link).
מָעוֹן ("fortress"): One Greek text has a variant term here, מָעוֹן, that means "dwelling place". It is associated with God's locale in the temple (Ps 26:8) or in the heavens (Deut 26:15; Jer 25:30; Zech 2:17) (TWOT, 1999: 610). "Stressing the remoteness and inaccessibility mentioned above, the nom. is on occasion taken as 'refuge,' in which humans take shelter from their enemies (Deut 33:27; Ps 71:3; 91:9; Jer 21:13). As such the term is paralleled with 'rock' (צוּר [#7446], סֶלַע [#6152]), and 'fortress' (מְצוּדָה). In several instances God is the refuge that protects those who fear him from enemies and distress (Deut 33:27; Ps 71:3; 91:9)" (NIDOTTE, 1016).
מְצוּדוֹת ("strongholds"): This is the only time in the Old Testament that מְצוּדוֹת appears in the plural form. It creates an awkward translation: "house of fortresses." Most of the ancient witnesses translate the term a singular form (cf. Peshitta ܘܒܝܬܓܘܣܐ; Targum: לחוסנא; LXX: καταφυγῆς [cf. Aquila ὀχυρωμάτων (pl)]; Vulgate: refugii). Briggs suggests a conjectural emendation of מְצוּדָתִי. However, it is hard to see how a holem waw would be ommitted and a hireq yod added. Additionally, this is the only time בֵית appears in construct a plural noun beside אלהים.
לִ-י ("for me"): The proposition לִ is a lamed of interest. Modern translations frequently render this prepositional phrase as indicating possession ("be my rock..." NCV, NIV, NLT, NET). The NRSV captures the Hebrew grammar better ("Be a rock of refuge for me").

v. 4[ ]

מְצוּדָתִי (stronghold >> secure location): SDBH describes it as an area shaped and located in such a way that it is hard to access and can be easily defended against enemies; this can be a natural stronghold in the mountains (e.g. caves) or a construction erected by humans in populated areas; ≈ often associated with security and sometimes used as an epithet for leaders or deities that are considered providers of security -- stronghold; fortress. (SDBH, link).

On several occasions, מְצוּדָה (mĕṣûdâ) is paired with סֶ֫לַע (rock) (2 Sam 22:2; Ps 18:3; 31:4; 71:3). This word is often related to mountains or summits. Interestingly, Zion is described as a stronghold that David captures (2 Sam 5:7) (TWOT 1999: 756).

לְבֵית מְצוּדוֹת (a house of strongholds>>complex of strongholds >> fortress): Modern translations offer different options for rendering this construct chain in English: strong fortress (NRSV, NIV); strong city (NCV); stronghold (NET). The NLT's fortress adequately captures the combined sense of both Hebrew terms.
סַלְעִי (rock >> hiding place): This is one of several words for "rock" in the Hebrew Bible. It may refer to smaller rocks than its synonym צוּר. Even if this is so, the סֶלַע is described as an object behind which animals can hide (Job 39:1; Ps 104:18) and fugitives can conceal themselves (1 Sam 13:6). The term is associated with stronghold meant to defend from enemy attacks (Isa 7:19; Jer 16:16; 48:28). Additionally, it is the term used for the rock that provide the Israelites water in the desert (Num 20:8, 10-11). It is also used as a name for God (2 Sam 22:2; Ps 42:10). It signifies God's protection for his people (Ps 71:3; 78:16; Isa 32:2) (NIDOTTE, 267).

deClaissé-Walford suggests, "This word is a synonym of 'rock' and probably means more like a crag or cleft in the rock. Since it is used without modifiers here, cave gives the modern reader the same understanding as the ancient 'crag' or 'cleft'" (deClaissé-Walford 2014: 301).

The verb נחה ("lead") is used to describe God's leading of both nations and individuals. God guides Abraham (Gen 24:27) and the children of Israel when they are in the wilderness (Exod 13:21). On several occasions this verb is used to refer to YHWH's leading the children of Israel through the wilderness (Num 23:7; Ps 78:14, 53; Neh 9:12, 19). Notably, the term appears several times with reference to YHWH leading someone to a secure location (cf. Ps 43:3; 60:11; 107:30). In Exod 15:13, YHWH leads the people to his dwelling place. In this context, it seems the psalmist is essentially saying, "I 'want' to take refuge in you. I know you are my place of security, but I recognize I am in a perilous situation. Therefore, please lead me into your presence where I will be saved from my enemies."
נהל ("escort"): Modern English translations all render this word as "guide." The LXX and Targum have words which mean nourish or sustain (CAL זון; LXX διατρέφω; VUL enutries). The word's definition suggests a caring relationship between the guide and the follower. The word escort better captures the sense of motion and care implied by the verb's usage. As Leonard Coppes writes, "The basic meaning of nāhal clearly emerges in Isa 51:18; Gen 33:14; Isa 40:11. The first passage parallels this root with 'leading someone by the hand,' i.e. to lead someone who is helpless (cf. Jud 16:26; Isa 42:6) or who needs to be guided aright (cf. Gen 19:16; Isa 45:1)... The second passage (Gen 33:14) records Jacob’s request to Esau that he be allowed to travel slowly and leisurely with his herds and children. Finally, the root is paralleled with rāʿâ 'to shepherd,' protectively gathering young lambs in one’s arms, and carrying them in one’s bosom. The root specifically is connected with what such a shepherd does in leading pregnant ewes. It is this loving concerned shepherd-like leading that typifies God’s conducting his people to Palestine (paralleled by nāḥâ, Ex 15:13)." (TWOT 1999: 559). Cognate words in Akkadian and Arabic suggest an association between this word and water (NIDOTTE, 3:44).
סַלְעִי וּמְצוּדָתִי ("my rock and fortress"): Two synonymous words forming a fixed compound. This word pair is conjoined by a waw several times in the Old Testament (cf., Ps 18:3; 71:3; Job 39:28).

v. 5[ ]

מָעֹוז (refuge >> mighty helper): The exact relationship between this term (מָעֹוז) and the idea of delivering the psalmist from a trap is not straightforward. How does a fortress help someone escape a trap? The LXX and Vulgate attempt to make this connection explicit with the following translations respectively: ὑπερασπιστής “defender”; fortitudo“strength”. Both of these translations put more emphasis on YHWH's ability to act. On several other occasions the term is used in parallel with concepts the imply YHWH's or another figure's active assistance in an issue (cf. Pss 27:1; 28:8; 60:7; Dan 11:1) (TDOT 8:444).
לִ-י ("for me"): The preposition לִ is a lamed of purpose/disadvantage.

v. 6[ ]

פקד ("entrust"): The term appears over 300 times in the OT and has a wide semantic range. However, its appearance in the Hiphil in Ps 31:6 is only one of 29 times the verb occurs in the Hiphil (NIDOTTE vol. 3, 658). In 1 Kgs 14:27 (cf. 2 Chron 12:10), Rehoboam entrusts (הִפְקִ֗יד) the bronze shields into the hands (עַל־יַד֙) of his guards. The term also describes the giving of a document for safe keeping in Jer 36:20 (HALOT, 957). Some modern translations render the verb as "commit" (NIV, ESV). The GNT makes the word's sense more explicit with "place myself in your care." The NLT, NET, and CEV emphasize the speaker's trust in the Lord with "entrust/trust." The psalmist is expressing his belief that YHWH will protect his life. The word פקד can be used to describe giving someone an object with the belief that he will keep it safe (cf. 1 Kgs 14:27; Jer 36:20) (HALOT).
פדה ("redeem"): This word in its various forms appears 69 times in the Old Testament. The Qal form of the word appears 14 times in the psalter. It is often expressed as a petition to YHWH (Ps 26;11; 69:18; Ps 119:134, etc.) (NIDOTTE 3:578). The term has roots in Israel's cultic system where animals could be used to ransom the firstborn of humans and other animals (cf. Ex 13:13, 15; 34:20b; 34:20a; Nu 18:15a). God is said to redeem individuals from Sheol (Ps 49:16), enemies (Ps 69:19), death (Job 5:20), and other general adversity (1 Kgs 1:29; Isa 29:22; Jer 15:21; Ps 26:11) (HALOT, 912).

William Coker notes, "Interestingly enough, only once is pādâ used with reference to redemption from sin (Ps 130:7–8). This remained for the completed revelation of the new covenant. Unfortunately, this emphasis has become so dominant in Christian redemptive theology, there is the tendency to overlook the fact that the NT as well as the OT sees redemption, or salvation, in terms of the total human situation. Even a cursory reading of Luke’s Gospel will catch the reflection of the OT heritage in the concept of salvation" (TWOT, 716). The wide variety of words used as translations for פדה demonstrates the uncertainty over how to render this word in English (deliver, NIV; rescue, NLT, NET, CEV; redeem, ESV; and save (GNT).

If possible, it is best to choose a translation that refers to the physical act hoped for by the psalmist. The English word "rescue" does this best.

On פדה, see Venn diagram below:

יְהוָה אֵל אֱמֶת ("YHWH, the God of faithfulness"): The second member reveals a characteristic/quality of the first member.

v. 7[ ]

הֶבֶל ("worthless idol"): The word refers to false gods that were worshipped by Israelites (cf. Deut 32:21; I Kgs 16:13, 26; II Kgs 17:15; Jer 2:5; 8:19; 10:8, 15; 51:18; Jon 2:8; Ps 31:6). Jer 2:5 and 2 Kgs 17:15 use the verbal form to claim that those who worship worthless idols become worthless themselves. The word's root meaning is "vapor or breath." It suggests that the idols are unable to do anything. Consequently, they are worthless (Hamilton TWOT 1999: 204).
שָׁוְא ("futility"): Reiterer compares this term with the surrounding context. He notes that the petitioner confirms that he strictly rejects (śnʾ) the adherents (šōmerîm) of the foreign gods. By contrast he emphasizes that he trusts (bṭḥ) only in Yahweh. The term šāwʾ serves as a severe qualification of these foreign gods, who are described as “winds” and whose ineffective nature is also emphasized. Hence it is quite logical that expressions of joy already commence with v. 8(7), since God is certain to deliver the petitioner from these enemies (suffix conjugation; v. 9[8])." (TDOT 2004, 14:458-459).
הַבְלֵי־שָׁוְא ("idols of worthlessness>>worthless idols"): A more literal translation might be "vapors of emptiness" (BDB). Comparison with the same phrase in Jonah 2:9 (8: Eng), however, supports understanding this phrase as a reference to idol worship. In Jonah, the הַבְלֵי־שָׁוְא is contrasted with Jonah's prayer to YHWH in the temple (Jonah 2:8 (7: Eng) (Bratcher 1991: 292-293).
הַשֹּׁמְרִים ("those who observe"): This term identifies an entire category of people who worship idols (BHRG 24.4.4.4).
אֶל יְהוָה ("in YHWH"): The preposition אֶל often "indicates the goal of a movement or process." This process does not have to be physical, but can be related to a person's emotional process. In this verse, the psalmist orients his attitude of trust towards YHWH (BHRG 39.3.1.c).

v. 8[ ]

אָגִילָה וְאֶשְׂמְחָה ("I will be glad and rejoice"): Two synonymous words forming a fixed compound. While these verbs don't fit the exact description provided by van der Merwe (BHRG 419), three factors suggest they are synonymous words forming a fixed compound. First, the terms are clearly synonymous. Second, they appear frequently in parallel lines (cf. Pss 14:7; 16:9; 21:2; 32:11, etc.). Third, the two terms are also coordinated with a waw conjunction in Ps 118:24. The phrase could be rendered as "I will gladly rejoice" or "I will be extremely joyful," but none of the modern English translations reflect this.
נַפְשִֽׁ-י ("my life"): While "life" does not refer to a body part in English, the Hebrew word can refer to "throat" or one's being.
בְּ-חַסְדֶּךָ ("on account of your faithfulness"): The בְּ preposition can mark "the reason or originating force of an action." In this verse, YHWH's faithfulness is the reason why the psalmist rejoices (IBHS, 11.2.5.e).

v. 9[ ]

סגר (delivered >> sealed): SDBH defines this term as "causative action of controlling and restricting movement; that is, to hand over a person or an object to another's control-- to deliver, to give up, to surrender (SDBH link).

As it does in Ps 31:9, this term appears with בְּיַד on numerous occasions (cf. Josh 20:5 1Sam 23:11f, 20 30:15 Ps 31:9 Lam 2:7) (HALOT, 743). It is normally translated as "handed over," "given," or "delivered." When used in the Hiphil stem, the verb can also refer to sealing someone or something off for the purposes of quarantine (c.f., Lv 13:4, 5, 21, 26, 31). Given the frequent references to spaces in Ps. 31, the psalmist may intend to bring out the concept of enclosure with this word choice. In previous verses, he has described YHWH as a secure hiding place where he can take refuge. In this verse, he rejoices because God has not "sealed him off" in the hand of his enemies, but instead has set his feet “in a spacious place” (Ps 31:8 [9])" (NIDOTTE, vol. 3, 225).

בַ(הַ)מֶּרְחָב ("in the broad place"): Though a broad place has not been mentioned before, one can assume that there must be a specific place for the psalmist's feet to be placed (BHRG 24.4.4.3).
בְּיַד־אוֹיֵב ("into any enemy's hand"): Note that the enemy is indefinite in this phrase. The psalmist is concerned about a general threat against him from an unspecified enemy.

v. 10[ ]

עֵינִ - נַפְשִׁ - בִטְנִ ("eye," "throat," "belly"): These three terms appear in a sequence to refer to the totality of a person's being. This is the only time all three terms appear in the same verse in the Old Testament. While נפש is often translated as "life" and בִטְנִ is sometimes translated as "body," the terms more literally mean "throat" and "belly" respectively. Thus, the list in v. 10 would literally be "eye, throat, and belly." This forms a chain of body parts from sight to eating to digestion. Modern translations
כַעַס ("anger"): Most modern English translations render this term as "grief" or "sorrow" (contrast "vexation" in JPS 1984 and NJB). The ancient witnesses, however, all use terms that refer to anger (LXX: θυμῷ; Aquila, Symmachus, Origen, Quinta: παροργισμῷ; Vulgate: ira; Targum: מרוגזא; Peshitta: ܒܪܘܓܙܐ). In the Septuagint, θυμῷ translates כַעַס in Ecc 7:9 and 2 Chr 16:10. παροργισμῷ translates כַעַס in 3 Kgdms 15:30 and 4 Kgdms 23:26. In all four instances, the word very clearly refers to anger. This translation also helps explain עוני in v. 11. The first and fourth words paired with the bet preposition refer to the psalmist's actions that have caused his wasting away. The second and third words (יָגוֹן and אֲנָחָה) refer to the manner in which he is wasting away.
עשׁשׁ ("waste away"): This verb only occurs 3 times in the Old Testament. Two of the occurrences appear in Psalm 31 (vv. 10, 11). The usage in v. 10 is similar to the other occurence in the psalter (Ps 6:8). While the exact meaning of the term is unclear, its general implications are understandable. All three uses appear in a negative context describing the weakened or diminished state of a body part. Ps 6:8 refers to the eyes and insinuate a failure of eyesight. Ps 31:10 refers to eyesight as well as the body and soul. Ps 31:11 refers to the bones and suggests their frailty. The verb appears in parallel with other terms implying the weakening or failing of other body parts (כָל֪וּ ;כָּשַׁ֣ל). The Septuagint translates the term with ταράσσω which means "to stir up, confuse." The Targum translates the word with טלק, which means "to perish." (NIDOTTE vol. 3, 561). As SDBH notes, the failure implied by this verb is caused by grief (SDBH link). The verb is translated quite differently in modern translations. The NIT and NET say the eyes grow weak/dim. The NLT says the psalmist's tears blur. The ESV offers a more literal translations with "wasted." The CEV translates this word and the whole list that accompanies it as "my whole body aches." The GNT says the eyes are tired. A translation that emphasizes a sense of permanent damage is likely best.
עֵינִ֗י ‬נַפְשִׁ֥י וּבִטְנִֽי ("my eye, my life, and my body"): Most English translations identify עֵינִי as the subject of עָשְׁשָׁה (see the alternative diagram). While this is an acceptable understanding of the grammar, it forces the translator to assume an elided verb for the following terms (נַפְשִׁי וּבִטְנִי) or to translate the rest of the verse idiomatically. Scheumann calls this construction "final coordination" (Sheumann 2020: 122-127). Additionally, as deClaissé-Walford notes, "The singular verb is not uncommon with multiple subjects if they are related, especially since the person is considered a unified whole without the division of body and soul" (NICOT, 301). Consequently, translations that recognize these three terms as a list of items functioning as the subject of the verb are preferred (cf. EU, ELB, NBS, NVS, BDS, S21, NVI, DHH, BTX IV) (IBHS, 648; deClaissé-Walford 2014: 301).
בְ-כַעַס ("because of anger"): The is a causal bet. The בְּ preposition can mark "the reason or originating force of an action." In this verse, psalmist's anger is the cause of his sight wasting away. (IBHS, 11.2.5.e).

v. 11[ ]

חַיַּי (life >> lifespan): In English, life is a singular noun. We do not say, unless we are joking, that we have multiple lives. The Hebrew term here is in the plural. It is frequently used in close proximity with שָׁנָה and in contexts that refer to someone's lifespan (cf. Gen 3:14, 17; 23:1; 25:7, 17; 47:8, 28; Exod 6:16, 18, 20; Deut 4:9; 6:2; 16:3; 17:19; 28:66; Josh 1:5; 4:14; 1 Sam 1:11; 7:15; 1 Kgs 5:1[4:21]; 11:34; 15:5f.; 2 Kgs 25:29f.; Isa 38:20; Jer 52:33f.; Ps 23:6; 27:4; 128:5; Prov 31:12; cf. 2 S. 19:35; Ecc 9:9) (TDOT 4:332).
כָלוּ (end >> languish): Since the psalmist is speaking, he does not literally mean that his life has ended. Instead, he is referring to the wasting away of his years of living. English translations offer very different terms ("spent" NRSV; "consumed" NIV; "ending" NCV, NET; "dying" NLT). The word can be translated as "languish" when it refers to agonizing decline in ones health (cf. Deut 28:32; Ps 84:2; 119:81; Lam 4:17) (TDOT 7:163).
יָגֹון ("grief"): The word can refer to both personal grief (Ps 31:10) and national grief (Ezek 23:33). As Alexander notes, "only God's Word brings relief from this state of mind (Ps 119:28) (TWOT, 361).
אֲנָחָה ("groaning"): SDBH defines this term as and "act by which humans make a deep inarticulate sound by pain, grief, or severe suffering" (SDBH link) The word is exclusive to poetic texts in the Old Testament. It refers to both physical and mental distress (TWOT 1999:57). The term's association with severe suffering suggests that a word that emphasizes the intensity of the psalmist's emotion is likely best. In English, this would mean that "groaning" (NIV, NET) is likely better than "sighing" (ESV).
שְׁנוֹתַ-י ("my eyers"): Waltke describes a genitive of inalienable possession as "something intrinsically proper to its possessor." He notes this is often used for body parts. This term does not refer to a part of the psalmist's body, but it does refer to something that intrinsically belongs to him (i.e., his time) (IBHS 9.5.1.h).
בַּ-עֲוֺנִי ("because of my iniquity"): The בְּ preposition can mark "the reason or originating force of an action." In this verse, the psalmist's strength languishes because of his iniquity. (IBHS, 11.2.5.e).

v. 12[ ]

חֶרְפָּה ("object of scorn"): As SDBH notes, this term refers to "an individual, nation, or land that is affected by efforts from others to arouse an emotion of shame in them by words or actions" (SDBH link). In Prov 14:31 the term is used as the opposite of honor (כבד) (HALOT, 356). It appears with the "to be" verb on numerous occasions to describe the speaker's reputation in social circles (cf. Ps 79:4; 89:42; 109:25) (BDB, 358). Wilson notes that the scorn is not an emotional issue for the psalmist, but a problem of "public disgrace" (Wilson, 2014). On חֶרְפָּה, see The Text and Meaning of Ps 31:12.
מִכָּל צֹרְרַי ("from all my enemies"): When כֹּל appears with a plural and definite noun it refers to the totality of a group that can be identified.
בַּ(הַ)חוּץ ("the street"): Though the "outside" or "street" has not been mentioned before in the psalm, anyone who sees him would most likely see him in the street. (BHRG 24.4.4.3).
לִֽמְיֻדָּעָ-י ("to the ones known by me>>my friends"): The Pual participle of ידע has a distinct emphasis on close friendship as illustrated through the parallel lines in other poetic texts. Ps 55:14 compares "close friends" with a synonymous term (אַ֝לּוּפִ֗י). Job 19:14 contrasts "close friends" with "distant relatives" (קְרֹובָ֑י).

v. 13[ ]

אבד ("broken"): HALOT offers "ill-made, broken vessel" for this specific instance of the verse (Ps 31:13). In contrast, SDBH offers the following definition and translation: a "state of not being located in the place where it is expected to be -- to be lost" (SDBH link). The word appears in 1QHa Col. xii:10 in a very similar context as Ps 31:13, the speakers friends have driven him away from their presence and pay no attention to him. Thus, the emphasis in 1QHa Col. xii:10 is on being out of sight (i.e., lost) instead of being broken or ill-made. The psalmist laments that he has been forgotten like a dead person from the consciousness of his friends and neighbors (Ps 31:12-13). The larger context of Psalm 31, however, differs from 1QHa and suggests that "broken" or "destroyed" is the better translation. In v. 14, the psalmist claims that his enemies are conspiring to take his life (לָקַ֖חַת נַפְשִׁ֣י). Additionally, אבד and מות appear as word pairs 4 times in the Old Testament (cf., 2 Kgs 11:1; Isa 26:14; Ps 41:6). Each of these verses use אבד as a synonym for מות.
מִ-לֵּב ("from memory"): This phrase is often untranslated in modern English translations. The NET renders the phrase as "no one thinks about." Roberts argues this sentence relies heavily upon ellipsis. He draws a comparison to Deuteronomy 4:9 which uses a similar phrase, but provides a full sentence. He translates the verse similar to the NET: "I was forgotten (and), like a dead man, (slipped) from the consciousness (of my friends)" (Roberts 1975: 800). A better translation might be "from memory" (DCH; cf. "out of mind" NRSV, KJV).

v. 14[ ]

דִּבָּה (evil report >> slander): A number of modern English translations render this word in as "whispering" (NRSV, NIV, ESV, CEV). These translations rely on the context to determine that the content of the speech is negative. The term itself, however, seems to carry a much more negative force than either "whispering" or even "rumors" (NLT) suggest. As the entry in TDOT notes: "dibbah does not mean here a rumor about someone which arises out of ignorance, but a calculated rumor which is conceived for the purpose of hurting someone and concerning whose truth or falsity no precise statement is made. It is, then, 'defamation.' The fact that dibbah is used with sinʾah, 'hate,' and sheqer, 'lying,' may perhaps indicate that falsehood is inherent in dibbah, so that its meaning can be narrowed down to 'slander'" (TDOT 3:76-77). The preceding verse describes how the psalmist has become a social outcast. The end of this verse will describe how his enemies plan to kill him. Thus, a more negative term like "slander" should be used.
מָגוֹר ("terror"): The term suggests fear in deadly situations related to military invasion or battle contexts (cf. Ps 55:16; Isa 31:9; Jer 46:5; 49:29). The same phrase is found in Jer 20:10. On מָגוֹר, see Venn diagram below:

יָסַד ("conspire"): Paul Gilchrist writes, "Two verses in the Psalms have an unusual use of yāsad in the Niphal, “The kings of the earth set themselves (yityaṣṣĕbû), and the rulers take counsel together (nôsĕdû) against the Lord and his anointed” (Ps 2:2; cf. Ps 31:13 [H 14]). As BDB puts it, the meaning here is 'fix or seat themselves close together, sit in conclave' which is closely parallel to the first verb, yāṣab (q.v.) in the Hithpael. The notion is of people firmly setting themselves against someone, here specifically against the Messiah." (TWOT, 1999:384-385).
זמם (plot): When humans are the subject of this verb, the context is almost always negative (cf. Gen 11:6; Deut 19:19; Pss 10:4; 37:12, 15; Prov 30:32; Jer 11:15) (TWOT, 1999:244).
דִּבַּת רַבִּים ("the slander spoken by many>>the slander of many people"): Some translations understand רַבִּים as an adjective in this phrase. This is not grammatically possible. רַבִּים is plural and דִּבַּת is singular. Additionally, the context suggests that רַבִּים functions as a substantive referring to the psalmist's numerous enemies. Consequently, the best translations will draw out the abundance of enemies and their rumors. Naturally, many enemies may result in many rumors, but this is not the phrase's emphasis (Bratcher 1991: 296).
מִ-סָּ֫בִ֥יב ("on every side"): When paired with the מִן preposition, סָּ֫בִ֥יב means from round about, from every side, or on every side (cf. Ez 16:33, 37; 23:22; 37:21; Jer 4:17; 6:25; 20:3, 10; 46:5; 49:29; Isa 42:25; Jonah 4:11, 12) (BDB, 687; cf. BHRG 39.14.2.a).
יַחַד ("together"): This is a nominal adverb. It functions as an adjective refering to the subject of the verbal notion embedded in the preceding infinitive construct (בְּהִוָּסְדָ-ם) (Joüon §126a).

v. 15[ ]

עָלֶי-ךָ ("you"): The preposition עַל can mark the "psychological predicate" of "verbs of thinking, feeling, rejoicing, grieving, watching" (IBHS 11.2.13.b cf. NCV, NLT), i.e., the "focus of attention" (BHRG §39.20(6)). Another option (NRSV, NIV, NET, ESV) is to see the preposition as "expressing (or implying) the direction of the mind." (cf. Ps `146:5 שִׂ֝בְרֹ֗ו עַל־יְהוָ֥ה which the NRSV glosses as "in") (BDB, 757).

v. 16[ ]

עִתֹּתָי ("times"): The NIV, ESV, and CEV translate the phrase literally with "times." The NLT, NET, CEV, and GNT translate the phrase more idiomatically with "future," "determine my destiny," "life," and "I am always" respectively. Gerald Wilson writes, "The use of 'time/times' in this sense is more than a remark on the passage of time. Underlying the psalmist’s surrender is an understanding of life as made up of a series of decisive moments in which a person can take either appropriate or inappropriate direction, depending on how he or she responds to the circumstances. One response is to seek to control and manipulate the situation to one’s advantage. That is clearly what the psalmist’s opponents are doing. The other way is to surrender one’s personal will to the power and authority of God, as the psalmist seeks to do in 31:15" (Wilson 2014). In the context of this psalm, the word likely refers to the fact that the psalmist recognizes he cannot control the events of his life. A helpful translation might be "events of life" (cf. 1 Chr 29:30; TDOT 11:444).
אוֹיְבַי וּמֵרֹדְפָֽי ("from the hand of my enemy and from those pursuing me"): The waw here is epexegetical. Normally, these two words are not joined with a conjunction. Instead, רדף normally functions as the verb referring to either the righteous person's pursuit of his enemies (Ps 18:38) or the enemy's pursuit of the righteous one (Ps 7:6; 143:3). This is the only time רדף is used as a substantive along with אֹיֵב. It is possible that the pursuers are meant to be seen as a further specification of the psalmist's enemies (cf. CEV "enemies who hunt me down").
מִיַּד־אוֹיְבַ-י ("the hand of my enemies"): A similar phrase appears in v. 9. However, there both "hand" and "enemy" are singular. In this verse, "hand" is still singular, but "enemies" is plural. This further highlights the concept described in the note on v. 9. "Hand" can metaphorically refer to someone's control. While the psalmist is certainly concerned about physical attack, this phrase has the more general sense of his enemies taking him captive and controlling him as one of their possessions.

v. 17[ ]

פָנֶי-ךָ ("your face >> your presence"): This is a common idiomatic phrase to refer to someone's (especially YHWH's) presence (cf. Num 6:25).
עַל עַבְדֶּךָ ("upon your servant"): When used in the spatial sense, עַל most often means "above." In this verse, the light is coming from YHWH who is higher than the psalmist (cf. Mena 2012: 120).

v. 18[ ]

דמם ("be silent"): There are two main options for translating this term: to be silent" (NIV, NLT, ESV, CEV, GNT) or "to wail" (NET). This word can often refer to silence that is the result of death or destruction (Exod 15:16; 1 Sam 2:9; Jer 8:14; 25:37; 48:2; 49:26; 50:30; 51:6; Lam 2:10; 3:28) (NIDOTTE, 1:972). The Old Testament occasionally speaks of people being able to speak or cry out from Sheol (cf. Ezek 32:21; Jonah 2:3). This would support the NET reading. However, the idea of silence helps emphasize the contrast between the psalmists and his enemies in v. 18. Additionally, it matches on the theme of silence that is continued in v. 19.

v. 19[ ]

אלם ("unable to speak"): The verb appears eight times in the Niphal stem. It insinuates not just silence, but an inability to speak or even open one's mouth (cf. Dan 10:15; Ps 39:9; Isa 53:7; Ezek 3:26; 24:27; 33:22) (NIDOTTE, 1:412). SDBH notes that this could be "because of a physical limitation or because of emotions" (SDBH, link).
דֹּבְרוֹת ("the ones who speak"): "The connotation of the qal diverges somewhat from the pi. The common act. ptcp. usually indicates someone who customarily functions as speaker, who speaks under commission or because of his/her inner nature: truth (Psa 15:2), lies, falsehood (Jer 40:16; Psa 5:7; 58:4; 63:12; 101:7), right (Isa 33:15; 45:19; Prov 16:13), salvation (Esth 10:3), folly (Isa 9:16), insolence (Psa 31:19); in Zech 11x of the prophet’s interpreting angel; Gen 16:13 of ʾēl roʿî, the special god of Hagar who used to speak to her; Num 27:7 and 36:5 of a speech constantly in someone’s mouth (Nyberg 221; cf. also the differentiation between dbr qal and pi. in HP 164–70)." (TLOT 1:328).
עָתָק ("insolent words"): The word occurs 4 times as an adjective. It describes the speech of those who are opposed to YHWH (cf. 1 Sam 2:3; Pss 75:6; 94:4) (TWOT, 1999:905).
בְּגַאֲוָה וָבֽוּז ("with arrogance and contempt"): Two synonymous words forming a fixed compound. Van der Merwe and others have suggested that a waw with a qamets indicates a hendiadys: "with concepts that are closely related (provided the first syllable of the second word is stressed), it becomes וָ" (BHRG, 419). However, as Lillas notes, this view is problematic because waw with qamets occurs in various situations for reasons other than hendiadys (e.g., stress, phonetic rules, etc.) (2012, 200-202). However, since the instrumental bet preposition is elided in the second term, these two words nonetheless possess close conceptual unity.
הַדֹּבְרוֹת ("who are speaking"): The definite article can function similarly to the relative marker (BHRG 20.3.2.2.1).

v. 20[ ]

טוּבְ (good things >> good deeds): There are two options for understanding the significance of this term: abstract and concrete. However, when referring to YHWH the two concepts are not mutually exclusive. Höver-Johag notes, "As 'the good' par excellence, the noun ṭûḇ or ṭôḇâ (as well as the neuter use of the adj. ṭôḇ) has two senses in religious contexts, related as cause and effect, as an abstract concept and its (collective) concrete manifestation." YHWH is "the good one." At the same time, his goodness is "manifested in concrete acts." In the context of this verse and the whole psalm, it this term likely has YHWH's good acts (collectively) in view. The following verbs support this reading because both imply some concrete objects (צָפַנְתָּ) or actions (פָּעַלְתָּ). These acts are related to serving as a refuge for the psalmist and delivering him from his enemies (TDOT 5:314-315).
חסה ("to take refuge"): Gamberoni notes, "In the Psalms, we find ḥāsâ/maḥaseh primarily in individual laments, albeit not in the lament proper, but in petitions introduced as the reason or motivation for the lament, often at the beginning (Ps. 7:2[1]; 31:2[1] par. 71:1; 57:2[1]; 144:2)" (TDOT 1986, 5:66).
לַ(הַ)חֹסִים ("to those who take refuge"): This term identifies an entire category of people who take refuge in YHWH (BHRG 24.4.4.4).
בְּנֵי אָדָם ("sons of humankind>>humanity"): Sons of man is a phrase that is used frequently to refer to humanity in general. Modern translations render the general reference to humanity as a collective reference to the totality of humanity (cf., "everyone" NRSV, NET; "all" NIV, NCV; "watching world" NLT).
נֶגֶד בְּנֵי אָדָם׃ ("in front of you"): The preposition does not always refer to close proximity, but can imply the ability of someone to observe another person's action (BHRG 39.16.2).

v. 21[ ]

רֹכֶס ("conspiracy"): This is the only time רֹכֶס appears in the Hebrew Bible.
תִּצְפְּנ ("you protect"): The word צפן doesn’t seem to be merely “hide” but also has strong connotations of hiding something of value to the hider. Cf. the definition in TWOT (774) “to conceal something with a definite purpose, either for protection or for sinister reasons” (TWOT, 774).
סֻכָּה ("shelter >> temple"): This is the term associated with temporary structures build for the Feast of Tabernacles (Booths). Roughly half of the term's occurrences, however, refer to simply a temporary structure meant to provide shelter. Several instances suggest the term is about shielding someone from the sun or another source of external threat (e.g., rain, wind, etc.) (cf. Isa 4:5; Jonah 4:5). The word also occurs in military contexts (cf. 1 Kgs 20:12, 16; 2 Sam 10-12) (TDOT 1999, 10:244). None of these meanings seem to fit with in the context of this psalm. The psalmist is looking for a reliable or even permanent shelter from his enemies. In this verse, he declares that YHWH provides such a structure for those who fear YHWH and take refuge in him.

The term can also refer to YHWH's heavenly abode (cf. Ps 18:12; Job 36:29), which can descend over Jerusalem (Ps 27:1-6), especially the temple (cf. Ps 15:1; Lam 2:6; Ps 76:2) and protect those loyal to YHWH (cf. Ps 27:1-6). Jerusalem itself can be understood as YHWH's סֻכָּה.

מֵֽרֻכְסֵי אִישׁ ("from a man's conspiracies>>from human conspiring"): Man (אִישׁ) can be a generic term that simply refers to humanity regardless of sex. The conspiracies of man in this context refer to the enemies' plans.

v. 22[ ]

הִפְלִיא ("shown to be wonderful"): YHWH is almost always the subject of this verb, as is the case here. The verb characterizes YHWH's action "as unfathomable to human beings or at variance with human understanding" (TDOT 11:538). In this verse, the psalmist is declaring his confidence that YHWH's lovingkindness defies human understanding to save him out of a desperate situation. The REB captures this nicely with "whose unfailing love for me was wonderful."
בְּעִיר מָצֽוֹר ("in a city under seige >>a besieged city"): The term מָצֽוֹר is related to the verb צוּר and is related to the idea of tying up or binding. Thus, the idea is that the city is metaphorically bound by an enemy (TDOT vol. 12 p. 306).

v. 23[ ]

נגזרתי ("cut off"): For a discussion of the text critical issue for this word, see the Grammatical note. The term can refer to death (cf. Isa 53:8; Ps 88:6) or separation from a community (cf. 2 Chr 26:21; Esther 2:1). Given the psalmist's concern for his physical safety in the rest of the psalm, he certainly has the former idea in mind (i.e., death).
אֵלֶֽי-ךָ: The preposition אֶל can mark the recepient of a transfer in a speech act (BHRG 39.3.2).

v. 24[ ]

כָּֽל חֲסִידָיו ("all his faithful ones"): When כֹּל appears with a plural and definite noun it refers to the totality of a group that can be identified.
עַל יֶתֶר ("above the rest >> abundantly"): The preposition עַל can mark an object of excess. One way it can mark excess is by implying multiplication (i.e., over, above; cf., Exodus 16:5) (IBHS 11.2.13.d).

v. 25[ ]

כָּל הַמְיַחֲלִים ("all who hope"): When כֹּל appears with a plural and definite noun it refers to the totality of a group that can be identified.
הַמְיַחֲלִים ("those who wait"): This term identifies an entire category of people who wait on YHWH (BHRG 24.4.4.4).

Verbal Semantics Chart[ ]