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Welcome to the Verse-by-Verse Notes for Psalm 44!

The Verse-by-Verse Notes present scholarly, exegetical materials (from all layers of analysis) in a verse-by-verse format. They often present alternative interpretive options and justification for a preferred interpretation. The Verse-by-Verse Notes are aimed at consultant-level users.

The discussion of each verse of this psalm includes the following items.

A link to the part of the overview video where the verse in question is discussed.
The verse in Hebrew and English.^[1]
An expanded paraphrase of the verse.^[2]
A grammatical diagram of the verse, which includes glosses for each word and phrase.^[3]
A series of notes on the verse, which contain information pertaining to the interpretation of the psalm (e.g., meaning of words and phrases, poetic features, difficult grammatical constructions, etc.).

Superscription (v. 1)

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
1	לַמְנַצֵּ֬חַ לִבְנֵי־קֹ֬רַח מַשְׂכִּֽיל׃	For the director. By the Korahites. A maskil.

Expanded Paraphrase

For the musical director. Written by the Korahites, a family of leaders in the Jerusalem temple. A maskil.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

For the phrase לַמְנַצֵּחַ, see Lamnaṣṣēaḥ.
The Korahites were one of the principal families in leadership in the Jerusalem temple.^[4] They were descendants of Korah, grandson of Kohath, of the tribe of Levi (Exod 6:16–21). Korah, along with Dathan and Abiram, rebelled against the leadership of Moses, and were judged by being swallowed up by the earth (Num 16:31–32). However, Korah's descendants were not killed (26:11). The Korahites were later given responsibility for guarding the entrance of the tabernacle (1 Chr 9:19) and leading praise (2 Chr 20:19).
The sense of the term מַשְׂכִּיל is not fully understood. It is often associated with the hiphil form of the verb שׂכל, "to instruct, teach" (cf. Ps 32:1, 8, which feature מַשְׂכִּיל in v. 1, and אַשְׂכִּילְךָ, "I will instruct you" in v. 8). Thus the LXX translates 44:1 with εἰς σύνεσιν, "regarding understanding" (NETS). However, given the overarching theme of lament in Ps 44, it is difficult to see how the psalm qualifies as instruction. It is also possible to render מַשְׂכִּיל as "meditation" or "skillful psalm."^[5] To further complicate matters, it is unclear as to whether the term refers to the psalm's musical accompaniment or its content.^[6] Another possibility is that מַשְׂכִּיל should be associated with the rare II-שׂכל, "to lay over cross-wise,"^[7] with the liturgical sense of alternating chants, or antiphony.^[8] In the absence of definitive conclusions, most modern translations transliterate the term as maskil.

Boasting in God (vv. 2–9)

While it is possible to view v. 2 as constituting an independent, introductory section of the psalm, it seems preferable to treat it as part of the larger section of vv. 2–9.^[9] The fronted divine title God (אֱלֹהִים) in v. 2a also appears in v. 9, forming an inclusio for the stanza.

This first section of Ps 44 is characterized by the recounting of God-driven victories over his people's enemies. The section as a whole is marked off by the inclusio "God" (אֱלֹהִים; see previous note). The instrumental ב preposition, used throughout this section, underscores the major theme of this stanza: the means of Israel's military deliverance. This section of the psalm can be further subdivided according to the following features:

vv. 2–4 - The first subsection features 3mp pronominal suffixes throughout, highlighting its concern with God's dealings with the ancestors.
v. 5 - As one of only two nominal clauses in this psalm (the other occurring in v. 16), this verse stands out as a pivot point in this initial section of the psalm. It also represents a transition between recounting past deliverances and proclaiming (likely proverbial) present victories.
vv. 5–9 - Despite a transition to a new movement of the psalm, this second subsection echoes themes found in vv. 2–4. Repeated mentions of the root ישׁע ("victory," "to deliver") echo the initial instance of the root in v. 4. Furthermore, both subsections conclude with discourse-level כִּי לֹא clauses (denying the power of human might), followed by adversative כִּי clauses (contrasting human might with divine power).

v. 2

Watch the Overview video on v. 2.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
2a	אֱלֹהִ֤ים ׀ בְּאָזְנֵ֬ינוּ שָׁמַ֗עְנוּ	God, we have heard [it] with our ears—
2b	אֲבוֹתֵ֥ינוּ סִפְּרוּ־לָ֑נוּ	Our ancestors have recounted to us
2c	פֹּ֥עַל פָּעַ֥לְתָּ בִֽ֝ימֵיהֶ֗ם בִּ֣ימֵי קֶֽדֶם׃	the deeds which you had done in their times—in times long ago.

Expanded Paraphrase

God, we have heard and heeded [it]—that is, the recounting of past history—with our ears, even if we did not witness it firsthand—Our ancestors from the Conquest generations have recounted to us, by passing down history to subsequent generations, the deeds which you did in their times, in times long ago; and those deeds now serve as a comparison for our present situation.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

While it is possible to view v. 2 as constituting an independent, introductory section of the psalm, it is preferable to treat it as part of the larger section of vv. 2–9 (see introduction to vv. 2–9).
The clause-initial position of the vocative "God" (אֱלֹהִים) in v. 2a serves to identify the addressee of the discourse.^[10]
The fronted position of the phrase with our ears (בְּאָזְנֵינוּ) in v. 2a marks it as the "dominant focal element," or pivotal informational element of the clause.^[11] Given the context of the remainder of the psalm, it is plausible that an implied contrast is intended between, on the one hand, past accounts of God's deliverance received "with our ears" (that is, by recorded account), and on the other hand, the absence of such deliverance in the psalmist's present experience (e.g., "with our eyes," or firsthand experience).
While the fronted אֱלֹהִים (God) establishes the addressee in v. 2a (see previous note), the topic at hand is established in v. 2b with the fronting of our ancestors (אֲבוֹתֵינוּ).
While the noun אָב most typically refers to a literal father, it is often used to refer to more remote ancestors, especially with respect to founders of tribal units.^[12] Here in 44:2, context and the plural form makes clear that ancestors are in view. Given the imagery of dispossessed nations in vv. 3–4, this is most likely a reference to Israel in the era of the conquest.^[13]
The noun deeds (פֹּעַל) is almost always grammatically singular, though the term is usually used in a collective sense of repeated or habitual acts.^[14]
The past and present generations of Israel are connected via the phenomenon of corporate solidarity (see The Speaker of Ps. 44:5, 7, and 16). Thus, the psalmist can appeal to past deliverances for present circumstances.^[15]
While the qal verb "to hear" (שׁמע) can occasionally be used intransitively (e.g., Gen 35:22; Num 12:2; Deut 6:4), in such instances the object of the verb (i.e., the content which is heard) is implied by the context. While it is separated from we have heard (שָׁמַעְנוּ) by an intervening clause, the present context suggests that the noun "deeds" (פֹּעַל) serves as the object of both "heard" (שָׁמַעְנוּ) and recounted (סִפְּרוּ). Another possibility is to take our ancestors have recounted to us (אֲבוֹתֵ֥ינוּ סִפְּרוּ־לָ֑נוּ), as a parenthetical statement, as in the CSB: "we have heard with our ears—our ancestors have told us—the work you accomplished in their days."
Most modern translations render the qatal verbs שָׁמַעְנוּ and סִפְּרוּ as present perfects (we have heard... our ancestors have recounted; so NIV, ESV, NASB, CSB, NET), which would highlight the resultant state of the action. This fits the context of the psalm, in light of its theme of appealing to past events for present circumstances .^[16]
The verb פָּעַלְתָּ introduces an asyndetic relative clause that qualifies פֹּעַל (i.e., the deeds [which] you did...). The reference time of פָּעַלְתָּ is established by the relative clause, as well as the adverbial modifiers בִימֵיהֶם and בִּימֵי קֶדֶם. Thus פָּעַלְתָּ denotes a simple past action within the newly established reference time.

v. 3

Watch the Overview video on v. 3.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
3a	אַתָּ֤ה ׀ יָדְךָ֡ גּוֹיִ֣ם ה֭וֹרַשְׁתָּ	You, by your strength, dispossessed nations,
3b	וַתִּטָּעֵ֑ם	and then you planted them.
3c	תָּרַ֥ע לְ֝אֻמִּ֗ים	You would afflict the people groups,
3d	וַֽתְּשַׁלְּחֵֽם׃	and then you would set them free.

Expanded Paraphrase

You, God, by your strength—and not our ancestors' strength—dispossessed idolatrous nations from the land of Canaan, in order to make room for the ancestors, to whom you promised the land of Canaan. Therefore you are equally capable of defeating Israel's present enemies. And then you, like a farmer, planted them—that is, the ancestors—in the land of Canaan, as you promised to the patriarchs. Therefore you can establish present-day Israel in the Promised Land. You would often afflict, by means of military defeat, the idolatrous, non-Israelite people groups, as a form of judgment. Therefore you are equally capable of afflicting Israel's present enemies. And then you would set them—that is, the ancestors—free from the oppression of their enemies. Therefore you are equally capable of setting Israel free from their present oppressors.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

Some scholars have suggested that you, by your strength (אַתָּה יָדְךָ) in v. 3a (MT) should be placed at the end of v. 2d instead, for metrical reasons. However, based on syntax and poetic structure, it is preferable to take אַתָּה יָדְךָ with v. 3a. For further discussion, see The Line Division of Ps. 44:2–3.
V. 3a features three elements that are fronted in relation to the verb dispossessed (הוֹרַשְׁתָּ). The first, you (אַתָּה), represents a topic shift, and begins a new section of the discourse. The second item, your strength (יָדְךָ), is fronted to indicate restricting focus (i.e., from a presupposed open set of candidates, God's hand/strength is the only possible selection that leads to a true proposition^[17]). The third item, nations (גּוֹיִם), is likely fronted for poetic purposes; accounting for the inserted wayyiqtol clauses in v. 3b and 3d, the fronting of גּוֹיִם forces the verb הוֹרַשְׁתָּ to the end of v. 3a, forming a tail-head linkage with the clause-initial verb תָּרַע in v. 3c.

The bodily term "your hand" (יָדְךָ) functions in the contextual domain of strength to denote one's power, hence the CBC rendering, "your strength."^[18]
The LXX renders v. 3a with "your strength" (יָדְךָ) as the subject of a third-person verb: ἡ χείρ σου ἔθνη ἐξωλέθρευσεν ("your hand destroyed nations"^[19]). It is possible that the LXX understands יָדְךָ, being a metonymy for God, as the subject of the verb הוֹרַשְׁתָּ, with agreement occurring between the 2ms verb and the 2ms pronominal suffix of יָדְךָ.^[20] However, it is more likely that יָדְךָ functions as an adverbial accusative (i.e., "You dispossessed the nations by your hand"),^[21] as reflected in most modern translations.
There is some ambiguity as to the referent of the 3mp pronominal suffixes of and then you planted them (וַתִּטָּעֵם) and then you set them free (וַתְּשַׁלְּחֵם). Most modern translations interpret them as referring to the ancestors of v. 2 (so NIV, ESV, NRSV, NET, CSB).^[22] On the other hand, it is possible that the suffixes refer to the nations (גּוֹיִם) and people groups (לְאֻמִּים) (so NASB95, LSB, KJV).
- It is preferable to understand the suffixes as references to Israel's ancestors, as they refer back to the discourse-active subject of v. 2. For further discussion, see Participant Analysis.
- Depending on the referents of the 3mp pronominal suffixes, the connotations of וַתִּטָּעֵם and וַתְּשַׁלְּחֵם could either be positive (i.e., "you planted... and set free [our ancestors]") or negative (i.e., "you transplanted... and expelled [the nations]"). If the preceding analysis is correct, these verbs most likely have the positive sense of God settling Israel in the land (cf. NIV, CSB, NET).
The core sense of the verb שׁלח appears to be "to send," from which other uses of the term radiate.^[23] If taken in a positive sense (see note above), this verb could have the sense of "to let go free"^[24] or "to cause spread out."^[25] It has been suggested that וַתְּשַׁלְּחֵם should be connected with an alternative homonym of שׁלח, "to put forth shoots."^[26] However, this would likely require an emendation from the piel form to an otherwise unattested hiphil form of IV-שׁלח. In absence of textual evidence for such an emendation, the most likely sense here is that of God setting Israel free to settle the land, then you set them free. In this vein, the piel שׁלח occurs as a thematic term in Exod 3–20, in reference to Pharaoh allowing Israel to go free from Egypt.^[27]
This verse features the qatal verb "dispossessed" (הוֹרַשְׁתָּ, v. 3a) along with the yiqtol verb afflict (תָּרַע, v. 3c). Paired qatal and yiqtol constructions can denote a general truth (see Verbal Semantics). The typically habitual value of the yiqtol can be viewed as providing an overlapping circumstantial description to the qatal.^[28] Here in v. 3, the dispossession and affliction do not refer to a single, isolated event, but rather a regular occurrence in Israel's past. This multiplicity of occurrences is further supported by the plural objects גּוֹיִם (v. 3a) and לְאֻמִּים (v. 3c).
The dispossession (הוֹרַשְׁתָּ, v. 3a) of the Canaanites was a direct consequence of YHWH's promising to give the land of Canaan to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 15:18–21; 17:8). Furthermore, the expulsion of the Canaanites was considered a form of judgment against their idolatry (Gen 15:16; 1 Kgs 21:26).

Grape cluster. Neot Kedumim, Israel.

If taken in a positive sense (see previous note), the planting (וַתִּטָּעֵם, v. 3b) of Israel is associated with the image of blessing. Israel is often depicted as a vineyard planted by God (Ps 80:8–11; Isa 5:1–4; Jer 2:21). The image of planting fields, gardens, vineyards, and groves is associated with the biblical picture of living the good life.^[29]
Regarding the verb תָּרַע in v. 3c, the root רעע can have the moral sense of "evil," or the general sense of "bad." When God is the subject of the verb (cf. also Jer 25:29; 31:28; Mic 4:6; Zech 8:14), רעע is presented as just judgment of unrepentant sinners.^[30]

v. 4

Watch the Overview video on v. 4.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
4a	כִּ֤י לֹ֪א בְחַרְבָּ֡ם יָ֥רְשׁוּ אָ֗רֶץ	For they did not take possession of the land by means of their sword;
4b	וּזְרוֹעָם֮ לֹא־הוֹשִׁ֪יעָ֫ה לָּ֥מוֹ	nor did their power give victory for them.
4c	כִּֽי־יְמִֽינְךָ֣ וּ֭זְרוֹעֲךָ וְא֥וֹר פָּנֶ֗יךָ	But rather your right hand, and your power, and the light of your countenance [gave the victory];
4d	כִּ֣י רְצִיתָֽם׃	for you had been pleased with them.

Expanded Paraphrase

For they—that is, the ancestors—did not take possession of the land of Canaan by means of military might, represented by their sword; nor did their physical power give victory for them over the nations. But rather, your—that is, God's—right hand (which is an image of strength), and your power, and the light of your countenance (which is an image of favor) [gave the victory]; For the reason you delivered victory for the ancestors was that you had favored them, by establishing a covenant relationship with them.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

When used as a discourse marker, the particle כִּי, as used in v. 4a, can function to "hold the floor" to provide a continuation or elaboration of the preceding discourse.^[31] As this discourse function likely developed from the use of כִּי as a causal connective, the causal translation of "because/for" is appropriate here,^[32] "For they did not..."
With respect to the concept of tak[ing] possession of the land, Israel's claim to the Promised Land was based on God's covenantal favor bestowed upon the patriarchs (Exod 6:8).
The fronted constituents by their sword (בְחַרְבָּם, v. 4a) and [by] their power (וּזְרוֹעָם, v. 4b) indicate a corrective (or replacing) focus, in which the presupposition underlying the object argument is highlighted in order to be negated and replaced.^[33] The presupposition that physical might brought victory is negated in v. 4a–b, and then replaced with the proposition that God's might brought victory in v. 4c–d.

Bronze Swords & Daggers, 15th-14th Century BC. Israel Museum, Jerusalem.

With respect to the phrase "by means of their sword" (בְחַרְבָּם), the preposition בְּ indicates the means or instrument by which the land is (not) possessed.^[34] The sword was the most important weapon in the ANE, and becomes a symbol for both warfare and divine judgment.^[35]
The verbal root ישׁע typically refers to the act of bringing help in the midst of trouble, rather than rescue out of it.^[36] In the present context, the sense of the verb give victory (הוֹשִׁיעָה) is that of military victory over adversaries,^[37] rather than the avoidance of battle.
The לְ preposition of for them (לָּמוֹ) indicates a dative of advantage, expressing the party to whose advantage the verb "give victory" (הוֹשִׁיעָה) occurs.^[38]
The bodily terms "right hand" (יָמִין) and "arm >> power" (זְרוֹעַ) function in the contextual domain of strength to denote one's power.^[39]
Within the contextual domain of body imagery, the "light (of one's face)" denotes a smile of favor.^[40] The imagery of light is "associated with life, goodness, happiness, prosperity, security, favor, and wisdom".^[41] The idiom light of your [i.e., God's] countenance (אוֹר פָּנֶיךָ) indicates divine approval.^[42]
As part of an explanatory כּי-clause, the qatal you were pleased with them (רְצִיתָם) is not temporally sequential, but rather a perfect of result (i.e., "you had been pleased with them [in the past]" >> "you are [now] pleased with them"). The concept of divine רצה involves goodwill that reaches out in mercy and compassion.^[43] Certain people are described as delighting God, e.g. those who fear him, the upright, those who seek good.^[44]

v. 5

Watch the Overview video on v. 5.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
5a	אַתָּה־ה֣וּא מַלְכִּ֣י *אֱלֹהָי	You are my king, my God,
5b	מְצַוֶּה* יְשׁוּע֥וֹת יַעֲקֹֽב׃	commanding victory for Jacob!

Expanded Paraphrase

You, God, are my—that is, the psalmist's—king, my God; and so, by virtue of corporate solidarity, you are also Israel’s king and God, and we submit to your authority. When we win, you are the one who is commanding victory for Jacob, or Israel, over their enemies!

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

Apart from a debated clause-final vocative (see The Text and Meaning of Ps. 44:5), the verbless clause of v. 5a demonstrates default word order.^[45] However, given the combination of a shift to the first-person singular on the suffix of my king (מַלְכִּ֣י) and the occurrence of the verbless clause suggests a transition to a new section.^[46] As one of only two nominal clauses in this psalm (the other occurring in v. 16), this verse stands out as a pivot point in this initial section of the psalm. It also represents a transition between recounting past deliverances and proclaiming (likely proverbial) present victories. For further discussion, see Synthesis.

If הוּא in v. 5a were functioning as a pronoun, then it would imply that the clause-initial you (אַתָּה) would be a dislocated item. However, אַתָּה is not left-dislocated ("as for you..."), as it does not agree in person with הוּא, which would be the resumptive pronoun in a left-dislocated construction.^[47] This rendering would result in the difficult clause, "You, he is my king..." It is possible to understand the clause as a right-dislocated construction ("you are he, my king").^[48] However, this would result in an anaphoric pronoun הוּא without a clear antecedent.^[49] As such, הוּא is most likely functioning as a copula in this context, equivalent to the verb "to be" (i.e., "you are my king"). It also serves to make clear that the sentence is a verbless clause, as opposed to a vocative exclamation ("you, my king, O God").^[50] For similar constructions, see 2 Sam 7:28; 1 Kgs 19:15; Neh 9:7.
The image of kingship is a symbol of power and authority.^[51] The depiction of YHWH as the divine king can be applied to his rule over his own people, the nations of the earth, the elements of nature, or the gods worshipped among the nations.^[52] In light of v. 5b, the depiction here is of God's kingship over Israel. While the concept of civil authority is involved in kingship,^[53] there is also a military dimension to the king's role. The king was to lead the nation in battle (1 Sam 8:19–20; cf. 2 Sam 11:1).
There is a discrepancy between the MT and ancient versions as to the text of Ps 44:5. The MT reads a vocative אֱלֹהִים and imperative צַוֵּה ("O God; command [victory]!"), whereas the LXX reading suggests an underlying text (or Vorlage) featuring an appositional אֱלֹהָי with an adjectival participle מְצַוֶּה ("[my king,] my God, commanding..."). Internal evidence favors the LXX reading here, as the imperative verb form of the MT would be unusual in this early section of the psalm. For more on this issue, see The Text and Meaning of Ps. 44:5.
The plural form of victory יְשׁוּעוֹת indicates the concept of victory, as opposed to instances of victories. The plural form is often used in the HB to express abstract concepts. Originally, these plurals of abstraction likely expressed concrete manifestations of the abstract concept, and eventually developed into expressions of the abstraction itself.^[54] The verbal root ישׁע typically refers to the act of bringing help in the midst of trouble, rather than rescue out of it.^[55] In the present context, the sense is that of God's provision of military victory over adversaries.^[56] Under the Mosaic Covenant, military victory is presented as a form of covenant blessing (Lev 26:7–8; Deut 28:7).
Jacob (יַעֲקֹב), son of Isaac, grandson of Abraham, is another name for Israel (Gen 32:28).

v. 6

Watch the Overview video on v. 6.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
6a	בְּ֭ךָ צָרֵ֣ינוּ נְנַגֵּ֑חַ	With you, we can gore our adversaries;
6b	בְּ֝שִׁמְךָ֗ נָב֥וּס קָמֵֽינוּ׃	under your authority, we can tread down our enemies.

Expanded Paraphrase

With you, God, when you accompany us into battle, we can gore, with ox-like military strength, our adversaries; Under your kingly authority, when you command victory, we can destructively tread down our enemies.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

Each of the four clauses in vv. 6–7 begins with a fronted adverbial modifier. Taken together, these fronted elements represent corrective (or replacing) focus, in which a presupposed argument is replaced by another.^[57] The fronted elements With you (בְּךָ, v. 6a) and under your authority (בְּשִׁמְךָ, v. 6b) correct and replace an implied presupposition (i.e., "something other than God provides victory"). The propositions of v. 6 provide a corrective to this presupposition (i.e., "it is God [and not weapons] who provides victory").

The prepositions of "With you" (בְּךָ, v. 6a) indicates the means or instrument by which Israel's enemies are gored and trod down, respectively.^[58]
In addition to the fronted, clause-initial prepositional modifier "with you" (בְּךָ; see preceding note), v. 6a features the fronted object our adversaries (צָרֵינוּ). Such "double fronted" constructions could indicate marked focus and topic shift, respectively.^[59] However, it is more likely that the fronted צָרֵינוּ is for poetic purposes, as the change in word order creates (apart from the focal prepositional phrases) an object-verb//verb'-object' structure with v. 6b.

Without reference point movement, the yiqtol verbs gore (נְנַגֵּחַ, v. 6a) and tread down (נָבוּס, v. 6b) denote habitual action. Since the fronted instrumentals "with you" (בְּךָ) and "under your authority" (בְּשִׁמְךָ) indicate replacing focus (see previous note), the nuance here is, "With you [and no other] we gore... Under your authority [and none other] we tread down..." Hence, the modality indicated is that of ability, "We can gore...we can tread down..."
The image of goring (נְנַגֵּחַ, v. 6a) was associated with ANE deities, as a symbol of ox-like strength, as well as victory. The Canaanite god Ba'al was depicted in the form of a bull.^[60] In the HB, the imagery of an attacking horned animal is used to refer to victory over an enemy.^[61]
While the ב preposition of "in your name >> under your authority" (בְּשִׁמְךָ) could be construed as indicating instrument (i.e., by [means of]^[62]), it has been noted that the similar construction בְּשֵׁם יְהוָה usually denotes the sense of commission^[63] or authority.^[64] God's name refers to the core of his identity, reflecting the essence of his being.^[65] It can also, as here, figuratively refer to his authority.^[66] Thus, the sense here is likely, "By your authority, we trample..." In this sense, the function of ב is likely closer to that of a metaphorical locative, denoting the domain in which the action occurs (cf. English, "under your authority").
The LXX renders the MT tread down (נָבוּס) with ἐξουθενώσομεν "we shall despise" (NETS). Unlike other synonyms for trampling (e.g., דרך, רמס), the verb בוס typically denotes destructive action, accompanied with anger.^[67] This negative emotional component could help explain the LXX rendering.
The participial form of קום, used as a substantival, can have the sense of "one who rises up, adversary, enemy, opponent."^[68] The 1cp suffix of קָמֵינוּ indicates a dative of disadvantage for the intransitive qal participle קָמִים ("those who rise against us" >> "our enemies"). While pronominal suffixes often indicate an accusative (i.e., direct object), they can also indicate datives with certain verbs.^[69] The suffixed pronoun is equivalent in meaning to the preposition עַל, i.e., "[to rise] against" us.^[70] God's defeating of "your enemies who rise up" (אֹיְבֶיךָ הַקָּמִים) is presented as a blessing for covenant faithfulness (Deut 28:7).

v. 7

Watch the Overview video on v. 7.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
7a	כִּ֤י לֹ֣א בְקַשְׁתִּ֣י אֶבְטָ֑ח	Indeed, I cannot trust in my bow,
7b	וְ֝חַרְבִּ֗י לֹ֣א תוֹשִׁיעֵֽנִי׃	nor can my sword give me victory.

Expanded Paraphrase

Indeed, I—and, by virtue of corporate solidarity, Israel—cannot trust in military strength, as represented by my bow, to deliver victory, because military strength is not as trustworthy as God; nor can my military strength, as represented by the sword, give me victory over enemies, because military strength is not as trustworthy as God.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

Each of the four clauses in vv. 6–7 begins with a fronted adverbial modifier. Taken together, these fronted elements represent corrective (or replacing) focus, in which a presupposed argument is replaced by another.^[71] The fronted in my bow (בְקַשְׁתִּי, v. 7a) and and my sword (וְחַרְבִּי, v. 7b) address the unspoken proposition, "bows and swords provide victory." The negative לֹא particles of v. 7 provide a corrective for this false proposition.

When used as a discourse marker, the particle כִּי, as used here in v. 7a, can function to "hold the floor" to provide a continuation or elaboration of the preceding discourse.^[72] As an elaboration of the preceding discourse, a so-called emphatic rendering such as "Indeed/in fact" is warranted.
Each of the four clauses in vv. 6–7 begins with a fronted adverbial modifier. Taken together, these fronted elements represent corrective (or replacing) focus, in which a presupposed argument is replaced by another.^[73] The fronted elements "With you" (בְּךָ, v. 6a) and "under your authority" (בְּשִׁמְךָ, v. 6b) correct and replace an implied presupposition (i.e., "something other than God provides victory"). This presupposition is made explicit with the fronted in my bow (בְקַשְׁתִּי, v. 7a) and my sword (וְחַרְבִּי, v. 7b), resulting in the proposition "bows and swords provide victory." The propositions of v. 6 provide a corrective to the former presupposition (i.e., "it is God [and not weapons] who provides victory"), while the negative לֹא particles of v. 7 correct the latter ("I do not trust in my bow [but rather in God]... my sword does not give victory [but rather God does]").
The preposition ב of in my bow (בְקַשְׁתִּי) can the object of a mental act.^[74]
While occasionally mentioned in connection to hunting, the bow and arrow are primarily mentioned in the HB with reference to warfare.^[75] Its long range made archers the most formidable warriors in the infantry.^[76]
Without reference point movement, the yiqtol verbs trust (אֶבְטָח, v. 7a) and "give me victory" (תוֹשִׁיעֵנִי, v. 7b) denote habitual action. Since the fronted instrumentals בְקַשְׁתִּי and וְחַרְבִּי indicate replacing focus (see previous note), the nuance here is, "I do not trust in my bow [but rather in God]... my sword does not give victory [but rather God does]." Hence, the modality indicated is that of ability, "I cannot trust in my bow, nor can my sword give me victory."
The sword (וְחַרְבִּי) was the most important weapon in the ANE, and becomes a symbol for both warfare and divine judgment.^[77] BH makes no distinction between the straight sword, used for stabbing, and the curved blade, used for slashing.^[78] The image of enemies falling by Israel's sword is connected with covenant blessing (Lev 26:7–8), but there it is clear that God's power, rather than the sword itself, is the deciding factor.
The verbal root ישׁע typically refers to the act of bringing help in the midst of trouble, rather than rescue out of it.^[79] In the present context, the sense of the verb give me victory (תוֹשִׁיעֵנִי) is that of military victory over adversaries,^[80] rather than the avoidance of battle.
As a statement of the psalmist's psychological state, the declarative sentence of v. 7a serves as an expressive illocution. Standing on its own, v. 7b could be construed as an assertive illocution. However, taken in parallel with v. 7a, it likely continues the expression of trust of the preceding utterance.

v. 8

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v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
8a	כִּ֣י ה֭וֹשַׁעְתָּנוּ מִצָּרֵ֑ינוּ	But rather you delivered us from our adversaries;
8b	וּמְשַׂנְאֵ֥ינוּ הֱבִישֽׁוֹתָ׃	and you put our enemies to shame.

Expanded Paraphrase

But rather, instead of our military strength, you, God, delivered us—that is, Israel—from our foreign adversaries; And you put our enemies to shame by the public humiliation of military defeat.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

As it governs both clauses of v. 8, the particle כִּי in v. 8a could be construed as a discourse marker. However, it has been noted that the lines are sometimes blurred between the use of כִּי as a causal connective on the one hand, and its function as a schematic discourse marker on the other.^[81] Here, the use of כִּי following a preceding כִּי לֹא clause (v. 7) parallels the adversative כִּי לֹא... כִּי construction of v. 4ac. Thus, it appears that כִּי is functioning as a adversative connective, "But," that governs both clauses of v. 8ab, rather than marking a discourse division.
The verbal root ישׁע typically refers to the act of bringing help in the midst of trouble, rather than rescue out of it.^[82] In the present context, the sense of the verb you delivered us (הוֹשַׁעְתָּנוּ) is that of military victory over adversaries,^[83] rather than the avoidance of battle.
In the Song of Moses, God is depicted as defeating his adversaries (צַר) on behalf of his covenant people (Deut 32:27; 41). Thus, the depiction of God defeating our adversaries (צָרֵינוּ) is associated with the concept of covenant blessing/curse. Furthermore, as covenant curse involves Israel being oppressed by "those who hate you" (שֹֽׂנְאֵיכֶם; Lev 26:17), the shaming of "those who hate us >> our enemies" (מְשַׂנְאֵינוּ) implies covenant blessing.
While "those who hate us >> our enemies" (וּמְשַׂנְאֵינוּ) is fronted in v. 8b, this is likely for poetic purposes, as the change in word order creates a chiasm with v. 8a.

Ps 44:8 - Chiasm

While most modern translations render הֱבִישׁוֹתָ as "put... to shame," some translations opt for "to put to confusion" (NRSV, REB; cf. also Vulg., confudisti). The verb בושׁ can indeed express confusion, in the sense of the embarrassment and dismay that occur when a situation goes contrary to one's expectations.^[84] When applied to the context of military defeat, the term can express a disgrace that involves nuances of "confusion, disillusionment, humiliation, and brokenness which the word connotes".^[85]

v. 9

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v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
9a	בֵּֽ֭אלֹהִים הִלַּלְ֣נוּ כָל־הַיּ֑וֹם	We have been boasting in God all day long,
9b	וְשִׁמְךָ֓ ׀ לְעוֹלָ֖ם נוֹדֶ֣ה סֶֽלָה׃	and we will keep declaring your name forever. Selah.

Expanded Paraphrase

We—that is, Israel—have been boasting in God as a form of worship all day long, or continually; and we will keep declaring your name—that is, God's name, which is a reflection of his character, so that others will know and worship him—forever, or from now on. Selah.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

The fronted prepositional phrase in God (בֵּאלֹהִים) represents topic shift in v. 9a. Here the topic shifts from Israel's enemies (vv. 6–8) to God. This is reinforced by the fronted topic your name (שִׁמְךָ) in v. 9b. These features, along with סֶלָה in v. 9b, appear to set off v. 9 as a distinct discourse unit within Ps 44.

The preposition ב of "in God" (בֵּאלֹהִים) can introduce the object of a mental act,^[86] or provide the complement for the piel verb הלל. Alternatively, this prepositional phrase could be read as specification (i.e., “boast with respect to God...”^[87]).
The continual aspect of v. 9a is inferred from the temporal modifier "all day long" (כָל־הַיּוֹם). Thus, the verb הִלַּלְנוּ has been rendered We have been boasting, in spite of its qatal form. As the psalmist is describing a past action with present results, the no reference time movement is expected. The piel הִלַּלְנוּ, in the present context, describes pride and satisfaction in God.^[88]
The phrase all day long (כָל־הַיּוֹם) specifies the temporal duration of the psalmist's boasting in God. Read in parallel with forever (לְעוֹלָם) in the following line, the temporal frame is not limited to a single day. Rather, it idiomatically communicates continual praise.
For the fronted phrase "and your name" (וְשִׁמְךָ), see previous note. This clause also features the fronted phrase "forever" (לְעוֹלָם), which likely represents scalar focus. The preceding temporal statement ("We have been boasting in God all day long") introduces a presupposed set of temporal options (i.e., "How long exactly will this boasting/declaring take place?"); the scalar focus provides an extreme selection among those options ("[even] forever").^[89]
God's name (וְשִׁמְךָ) refers to the core of his identity, reflecting the essence of his being.^[90]
The concept of ידה involves confession, which could denote publicly admitting one's shortcomings before God.^[91] However, in the present context, declaring (נוֹדֶה) appears to denote a declaration of God's attributes and works.^[92] It is possible to construe נוֹדֶה as a cohortative (i.e., "Let us praise"). However, taken in parallel with the preceding qatal הִלַּלְנוּ, it is likely that נוֹדֶה is a yiqtol that forms a paired construction to denote a general truth (see Verbal Semantics).
While there have been a multitude of proposed explanations for the 71 occurrences of סֶלָה in the Psalms, the meaning of the term remains unclear.^[93] Most likely, the term has some type of musical significance.^[94] The LXX translates the term with διάψαλμα, "leading motif" (LEH) or "interlude on strings" (NETS); whereas most modern translations simply transliterate it as Selah.

Rejected by God (vv. 10–17)

This second section is characterized by descriptions of Israel's defeat and humiliation. It can be further subdivided thematically between descriptions of defeat (vv. 10–13) and those of humiliation (vv. 14–17). These distinct sections are also signaled by the use of paired qatal-yiqtol verbal constructions in vv. 10–13 and the repeated you turn (תְּשִׂימֵ֣נוּ) in vv. 14 and 15. In contrast with the third section that follows, vv. 10–17 feature primarily 2ms verb forms referring to God, highlighting his agency (and responsibility) in this lament.

v. 10

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v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
10a	אַף־זָ֭נַחְתָּ	Even so, you have rejected [us]—
10b	זָ֭נַחְתָּ וַתַּכְלִימֵ֑נוּ	that is, you have put us to shame.
10c	וְלֹא־תֵ֝צֵ֗א בְּצִבְאוֹתֵֽינוּ׃	And you do not go forth with our armies.

Expanded Paraphrase

Even so, contrary to expectations, you, God, have rejected [us], and so Israel is experiencing rejection instead of your favor; that is, by rejecting us you have put us to shame through the public humiliation of defeat. And you currently do not go forth in accompaniment with our armies, to fight our enemies, so our armies cannot win.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

The conjunctive adverb אַף functions as a discourse marker when governing multiple sentences,^[95] as it does here. In the present context, אַף could be construed as an adversative (e.g., "nonetheless"^[96]), which would not conform to its prototypical sense of addition.^[97] However, it has been noted that in certain cases, אַף behaves similarly to the focus particle גַּם, and introduces an extreme or unexpected entity.^[98] Applied to the current context, אַף should be read as introducing an unexpected addition, rather than a contrastive adversative. This would be in keeping with the sense of irony that pervades this psalm (see Poetic Features), and could be translated along the lines of "Even so."^[99] While similar in semantic content to the adversative, the use of addition could have the rhetorical effect of heightening the sense of incongruity between the praise of v. 9 and the rejection of v. 10. The stark contrast between Israel's praise (v. 9) and God's rejection (v. 10) is likely a rhetorical means of heightening the emotional impact of the rejection (see Poetic Features). This would support a higher-activation negative emotion such as distress (see Emotional Analysis).
While typically associated with temporal succession, it is likely that the wayyiqtol וַתַּכְלִימֵנוּ is epexegetical, in that it explains the preceding clause (i.e., "you have rejected, that is, you have put us to shame").^[100] In the current context, the verb denotes the resulting state of an anterior action (perfect of result); as such, no reference point movement is expected.
Honor and shame communicate relative social status, and thus both entail recognition and acknowledgment. As such, the concept of being "put... to shame" (וַתַּכְלִימֵנוּ) has a public dimension.^[101]
Without reference point movement, the yiqtol go forth (תֵצֵא) denotes habitual action. It is possible that the yiqtol form is here denoting desire (e.g., "you refuse to go out").^[102]
In BH, צָבָא as a reference to military men can occur in either the singular or the plural.^[103] The distinction between the singular and plural of collective nouns is not always clear.^[104] In the case of our armies (צִבְאוֹתֵינוּ), it is possible that the feminine plural form denotes an armed military force, as opposed to the more abstract concept of military service or warfare.^[105] On the other hand, the plural could be construed as a reference to the collection of Israel's various military forces. During King David's reign, a standing army composed of Israelites and foreign mercenaries supplemented their conscripted militia.^[106] The militia itself was formed on the basis of a census, taken of Israelite males twenty years and older (cf. Num 1:2–3). The Israelite military was composed of three broad divisions: spearmen, archers, and slingers. The armed forces were divided into units of 1,000, 100, 50, and 10.^[107]

v. 11

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v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
11a	תְּשִׁיבֵ֣נוּ אָ֭חוֹר מִנִּי־צָ֑ר	You make us retreat before the adversary,
11b	וּ֝מְשַׂנְאֵ֗ינוּ שָׁ֣סוּ לָֽמוֹ׃	and our enemies have plundered for themselves.

Expanded Paraphrase

You, God, continually make us, Israel, retreat in battle before the foreign adversary, which would be consistent with covenant curse, as a consequence of unfaithfulness; and our enemies have plundered us, by taking spoils of war, for themselves, and not as an intentional service to God, and so we are now plundered.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

This verse features the yiqtol verb you make us retreat (תְּשִׁיבֵנוּ, v. 11a) along with the qatal verb plundered (שָׁסוּ, v. 11b). Paired qatal and yiqtol constructions can denote a general truth (see Verbal Semantics). The typically habitual value of the yiqtol can be viewed as providing an overlapping circumstantial description to the qatal.^[108] Here in v. 11, the retreat and plundering do not refer to a single, isolated event, but rather a general occurrence in the psalmist's current experience.
While the hiphil verb תְּשִׁיבֵנוּ with an accusative typically means "to bring or lead back,"^[109] with the adverbial accusative אָחוֹר, the construction has the sense of "You make us retreat."^[110] Under the Mosaic Covenant, military retreat is presented as a form of covenant curse, as a consequence for unfaithfulness to YHWH (Lev 26:17, 36–37; Deut 28:25).
In comparison to the MT's before the adversary (מִנִּי־צָר) the LXX includes a possessive pronoun: παρὰ τοὺς ἐχθροὺς ἡμῶν, "rather than our enemies."^[111] This reading is reflected in a few modern translations (NLT, GNB, NCV). The inclusion of the pronoun could be explained as having been supplied by the LXX translators to smooth out the rendering, and thus the MT reading is preferred.
While "those who hate us >> our enemies" (וּמְשַׂנְאֵינוּ) is fronted in v. 11b, this is likely for poetic purposes, as the change in word order creates a chiasm with v. 11a.

Ps 44:11 - Chiasm

Under the Mosaic Covenant, covenant curse involves Israel being oppressed by "those who hate you" (שֹֽׂנְאֵיכֶם; Lev 26:17). Thus, the concept of being plundered by "our enemies" (וּמְשַׂנְאֵינוּ) is associated with covenant curse.
With respect to the concept of being plundered, in the ANE, military victors assumed the privilege to seize whatever they could, including women, children, cattle, clothing, and precious metals.^[112] The choicest of plunder was often devoted to a deity (cf. Goliath's sword, 1 Sam 21:9; Saul's armor, 1 Sam 31:9–10), while entire cities or tribes could be "devoted" to God prior to attack.^[113]
Multiple modern translations appear to omit the prepositional phrase for themselves (לָמוֹ; so NIV, ESV, NRSV, CEV). The phrase could have the nuance of "at their will."^[114] The NET captures this idiomatic sense in its rendering, "Those who hate us take whatever they want from us" (emphasis added). However, it is preferable to render the preposition as a לְ of advantage, "for themselves >> for their benefit."^[115]

v. 12

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v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
12a	תִּ֭תְּנֵנוּ כְּצֹ֣אן מַאֲכָ֑ל	You give us up as sheep for consumption,
12b	וּ֝בַגּוֹיִ֗ם זֵרִיתָֽנוּ׃	and you have scattered us among the nations.

Expanded Paraphrase

You, God, continually give us, Israel, up as sheep—which should be protected by you, the shepherd—for consumption by our enemies, as if they were wild predators. This consumption that would be consistent with covenant curse, as a consequence of unfaithfulness; and you have scattered us into exile and captivity, like chaff scattered by the wind during the threshing of wheat, among the nations, outside of the Promised land, which would be consistent with covenant curse, as a consequence of unfaithfulness.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

This verse features the yiqtol verb giv[en]... up [as sheep] (תִּתְּנֵנוּ, v. 12a) along with the qatal verb scattered (זֵרִיתָֽנוּ, v. 12b). Paired qatal and yiqtol constructions can denote a general truth (see Verbal Semantics). The typically habitual value of the yiqtol can be viewed as providing an overlapping circumstantial description to the qatal.^[116] Here in v. 12, being given up and scattered do not refer to a single, isolated event, but rather a general occurrence in the psalmist's current experience.
To be "given up" (נתן) is associated with covenant curse, as covenant unfaithfulness results in Israel's children being given (נְתֻנִים) to foreigners (Deut 28:32).

Sheep at Neot Kedumim, Israel.

Sheep (צֹאן) are portrayed as vulnerable prey in need of protection.^[117] Sheep in the ANE were primarily raised for their wool. To slaughter a sheep for a guest was a sign of honor and hospitality.^[118] On the other hand, firstborn sheep in Israel were set aside for consumption by the priests (Num 18:17–18). Notably, firstborn sheep could not be redeemed (פדה; Num 18:17), possibly creating an unresolved tension with 44:27b.
Under the Mosaic Covenant, being consumed (אכל) by enemies is presented as a form of covenant curse, as a consequence for unfaithfulness to YHWH (Lev 26:38; Deut 28:33, 51).
While the fronted prepositional phrase and among the nations (וּבַגּוֹיִם, v. 12b) could indicate marked focus, it is unclear what the force of such marked focus would be. It seems preferable to see the fronting as poetic, as the change in word order creates a chiasm with v. 12a—which would parallel the chiastic pattern in v. 11.
The image of scattering (זֵרִיתָֽנוּ) is related to the practice of winnowing grain, in which mixed kernels and chaff are tossed in the air, and the chaff is carried away by the wind.^[119] The figurative scattering of God's people as a form of judgment dominates the piel form of זרה, and highlights the punishment of exile.^[120] Under the Mosaic Covenant, scattering as exile is presented as a covenant curse, as a consequence of unfaithfulness to YHWH (Lev 26:33; Deut 28:64).

v. 13

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v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
13a	תִּמְכֹּֽר־עַמְּךָ֥ בְלֹא־ה֑וֹן	You sell your people without compensation,
13b	וְלֹ֥א־רִ֝בִּ֗יתָ בִּמְחִירֵיהֶֽם׃	and you have not made a profit by them.

Expanded Paraphrase

You, God, sell your people, Israel, to enemy nations, by allowing enemies to plunder them, without compensation of sacrifice, which would have been expected for a deity's help in battle; you have not made a profit by selling them, suggesting that you are motivated by punishing Israel, rather than receiving sacrifice.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

This verse features the yiqtol verb sell[ing] (תִּמְכֹּֽר, v. 13a) along with the qatal verb made [a profit] (רִבִּיתָ, v. 13b). Paired qatal and yiqtol constructions can denote a general truth (see Verbal Semantics). The typically habitual value of the yiqtol can be viewed as providing an overlapping circumstantial description to the qatal.^[121] Here in v. 13, the act of selling and profiting do not refer a single, isolated event, but rather a general occurrence in the psalmist's current experience.
A depiction of covenant curse involves Israel seeking to sell themselves (הִתְמַכַּרְתֶּם) into slavery, yet not finding a buyer (Deut 28:68)—presumably because of their worthlessness. Furthermore, in the Song of Moses, military defeat is connected to the theological reality of God "selling" (מכר) the defeated army (Deut 32:30). Thus, God's involvement in selling his people is associated with the concept of covenant curse.
The ב preposition of בְלֹא־הוֹן can indicate the price of something, at times connoting "in exchange for."^[122] The sense here could be "for not-wealth >> for mock money."^[123] More likely, it denotes without compensation, with the connotation of "without value."^[124]
Some modern translations treat רִבִּיתָ as an intransitive verb (i.e., "you have not profited/increased"), with the prepositional phrase בִּמְחִירֵיהֶם functioning as an adverbial modifier, indicating means (i.e., "by their price"; so NASB, NIV, CSB, KJV). On the other hand, it is possible that the preposition בְּ of בִּמְחִירֵיהֶם introduces the object of the transitive verb רִבִּיתָ.^[125] If so, then the verbal idea here is that of inflating the purchase price (so ESV, NRSV, NET). In the piel stem, the verb is transitive in all its other occurrences (Judg 9:29; Ezek 19:2; Lam 2:22). Thus, reading רִבִּיתָ as transitive (with בִּמְחִירֵיהֶם indicating the object) is preferred. However, the construction as a whole should be taken as an idiomatic expression, made a profit.^[126]
Trade in Israel was a mixture of bartering and other forms of exchange.^[127] Commodities were valued according to weight or count.^[128]

v. 14

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v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
14a	תְּשִׂימֵ֣נוּ חֶ֭רְפָּה לִשְׁכֵנֵ֑ינוּ	You turn us into an object of scorn to our neighbors—
14b	לַ֥עַג וָ֝קֶ֗לֶס לִסְבִיבוֹתֵֽינוּ׃	An object of scornful derision to those who surround us.

Expanded Paraphrase

You, God, turn us, Israel, into an object of scorn, because of the public shame of being devastated, to our neighbors, that is, the immediately surrounding nations, who have witnessed our defeat—An object of scornful derision to those who surround us.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

While the term חֶרְפָּה can be used to refer to the act of scorning (Lam 3:61; Zeph 2:8), it can also have the passive sense of object of scorn, which is appropriate here (cf. Pss 31:12; 79:4).^[129]
The phrase לַעַג וָקֶלֶס also occurs in Ps 79:4. On this basis, it is possible that לַעַג וָקֶלֶס constitutes a fixed expression (or hendiadys) that means scornful derision.^[130]
Without reference point movement, the yiqtol You turn us (תְּשִׂימֵנוּ) denotes habitual action.
Honor and shame communicate relative social status, and thus both entail recognition and acknowledgment. As such, the scorn and derision depicted in v. 14 likely connotes a public experience.^[131]

v. 15

Watch the Overview video on v. 15.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
15a	תְּשִׂימֵ֣נוּ מָ֭שָׁל בַּגּוֹיִ֑ם	You turn us into a parable among the nations—
15b	מְנֽוֹד־רֹ֝֗אשׁ בַּלְאֻמִּים	An object of pity among the people groups.

Expanded Paraphrase

You, God, turn us, Israel, into a parable, that is, a negative example, among the non-Israelite nations, an object of pity, because of the public shame of being devastated, among the non-Israelite people groups.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

Without reference point movement, the yiqtol You turn us (תְּשִׂימֵנוּ) denotes habitual action.
While typically associated with the wisdom sayings of the book of Proverbs (Prov 1:1, 6; 10:1; 25:1), the term מָשָׁל can have a more general sense of "saying" within a variety of genres.^[132] The core meaning of "to be like, be equal to" appears to underly most uses of the nominal and verbal forms of the word.^[133] In contexts where the term clearly has a negative connotation, the most common modern English translation is "byword" (NIV, ESV, NRSV, NASB, NJB). Such translations suggest that the force of מָשָׁל is that of ridicule or taunting (see also CSB, NET, CEV, NCV). However, the core idea of comparison suggests that the true force of מָשָׁל is that of a negative example, presented to discourage others from doing likewise.^[134] The CBC rendering of parable seeks to capture this dynamic. Becoming a negative, proverbial example (מָשָׁל) is presented as a consequence of covenant unfaithfulness (Deut 28:37).
This is the only occurrence in the HB of the nominal מְנוֹד. The verbal form נוּד, "to sway," when applied to the "shaking of the head," is an idiomatic means of expressing concern; the exact nuance can range between sympathy, surprise, or scorn.^[135] Given the parallelism with "parable" (מָשָׁל; see previous note), the sense of מְנוֹד־רֹאשׁ in v. 15 could be that of disapproval or shock, as opposed to taunting or mockery. The CBC rendering, object of pity, seeks to reflect this nuance.
BHS, in reproducing the text of Leningradensis (L), reads "not peoples" ([?] בַּל־אֻמִּים) in v. 15b. Most Hebrew manuscripts (including the Aleppo and Sassoon Codices) read among the peoples (בַּלְאֻמִּים) instead. This reading is also supported by the LXX and Targum. It is possible that L has mis-divided the original בלאמים into בַּל־אֻמִּים.^[136] However, as the identical construction בַּל־אֻמִּים also occurs in Pss 57:10; 108:4; and 149:7 of L, if this were indeed a scribal error, it would seem to be an unusually common occurrence. The reading of בַּל־אֻמִּים makes little sense syntactically, as the negative particle בַּל is not elsewhere found with substantives.^[137] It is also difficult contextually, unless בַּל־אֻמִּים means "not a people" in a pejorative sense (cf. בְּלֹא־עָם in Deut 32:21). It is possible that this pejorative sense formed the motivation for an intentional re-vocalization of the text of L. The reading of בַּל־אֻמִּים could be explained as a midrashic play on words by the scribe of L, in order to make allusion to texts like Deut 32:21.^[138]

vv. 16–17

Watch the Overview video on vv. 16–17.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
16a	כָּל־הַ֭יּוֹם כְּלִמָּתִ֣י נֶגְדִּ֑י	All day long, my shame is before me,
16b	וּבֹ֖שֶׁת פָּנַ֣י כִּסָּֽתְנִי׃	and my shamefacedness has covered me,
17a	מִ֭קּוֹל מְחָרֵ֣ף וּמְגַדֵּ֑ף	because of the voice of the reviling taunter,
17b	מִפְּנֵ֥י א֝וֹיֵ֗ב וּמִתְנַקֵּֽם׃	because of the vengeful enemy.

Expanded Paraphrase

[16] All day long, or continually, my shame of public defeat is before me in my conscious attention; and so, by virtue of corporate solidarity, Israel’s shame is continually in their conscious attention; and my shamefacedness, or blushing as a depiction of the public shame of being devastated, has covered me,

[17] because of the mocking voice of the reviling taunter among the non-Israelite nations, because of the vengeful enemy nations who have had a history of vengeful enmity with Israel.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

With v. 5, v. 16a is the only instance of a nominal clause in this psalm. Given the predominance of verbal clauses throughout the psalm, this makes the clause stand out at the end of this stanza. In v. 17, the piling on of terminology, coupled with the assonance of the letter מ,^[139] appear to build up to an emotional climax for the psalm. This provides the springboard for the following stanza, and the psalmist's protestation of innocence.

The fronted temporal element all day long (כָּל־הַיּוֹם) indicates marked focus. It is possible that the psalmist is introducing an implicit contrast between Israel's constant shame and its constant (כָּל־הַיּוֹם) worship of God previously mentioned in v. 9.
It is likely that shamefacedness (וּבֹשֶׁת פָּנַי) is fronted to indicate topic shift. Coupled with the marked focus of v. 16a (see preceding note), this appears to set off a discourse unit that is contrasted with v. 9.
The expression "shame of the face" (בֹֺּשֶׁת פָּנִים) is common (Jer 7:19; Dan 9:7–8; Ezra 9:7; 2 Chr 32:21), and could denote the idiomatic sense of "blush."^[140] Honor and shame communicate relative social status, and thus both entail recognition and acknowledgment. As such, the concept of "shamefacedness" (וּבֹשֶׁת פָּנַי) has a public dimension.^[141]
This word pair "taunter and reviler" (מְחָרֵף וּמְגַדֵּף) can be construed as a fixed expression (or hendiadys).^[142] The verbal pair חרף and גדף also occurs in 2 Kgs 19:22 and Isa 37:23. If the participial forms are understood as a verbal hendiadys, then the verbal ideas would be parallel (i.e., "taunting and reviling").^[143] However, as the participles are functioning as substantives, then the second term of the nominal hendiadys should be understood as modifying the first (i.e., the reviling taunter).^[144]
The exact phrase "enemy and avenger" (אוֹיֵב וּמִתְנַקֵּם) also appears in Ps 8:3, and it is likely that the construction is a hendiadys.^[145] If the participial forms are understood as a verbal hendiadys, then the verbal ideas would be parallel (i.e., "adversarial and avenging").^[146] However, as the participles are functioning as substantives, then the second term of the nominal hendiadys should be understood as modifying the first (i.e., the vengeful enemy).^[147] While the term נקם typically refers to "vengeance" as a form of divine justice, it occasionally denotes purely human (negative) vengefulness.^[148] On the other hand, God promises an "avenging sword" (חֶרֶב נֹקֶמֶת) and "covenant vengeance" (נְקַם־בְּרִית) as a curse for covenant unfaithfulness (Lev 26:25).
The preposition מִן of because of the voice... (מִקּוֹל, v. 17a) can communicate the cause of an action or situation.^[149] The lexical range of מִפְּנֵי (v. 17b) is narrower than מִן, as מִפְּנֵי is primarily used in contexts of hostility or threats.^[150]

Faithful to God (vv. 18–23)

The fronted all this (כָּל־זֹאת) of v. 18 signals a transition and indicates topic shift, thus suggesting the beginning of a new section (see Macrosyntax).^[151] This section is characterized by two subsections with parallel syntactic features: in each strophe, the verb "to neglect" (שׁכח, vv. 18, 21) is followed by a negative clause (vv. 19, 22), which then sets up a contrast with an adversative כִּי-clause (vv. 20, 23). Also, in contrast with the preceding section, these verses feature primarily first-person verbs, or verbs for body parts standing as metonymies for the first-person speaker. This focuses the readers attention on Israel throughout this stanza, as the psalmist makes the case for their covenant faithfulness.

v. 18

Watch the Overview video on v. 18.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
18a	כָּל־זֹ֣את בָּ֭אַתְנוּ	All this has come upon us,
18b	וְלֹ֣א שְׁכַחֲנ֑וּךָ	even though we have not neglected you;
18c	וְלֹֽא־שִׁ֝קַּ֗רְנוּ בִּבְרִיתֶֽךָ׃	Nor have we broken faith with your covenant.

Expanded Paraphrase

All this defeat and humiliation has come from God upon us, Israel, even though, contrary to expectations, we have not neglected you, God, by failing to fulfill covenant obligations; so our defeat does not make sense as a consequence for our disobedience; nor have we broken faith with your covenant by not fulfilling covenant obligations; so our defeat does not make sense as a consequence for our disobedience.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

The fronted all this (כָּל־זֹאת) of v. 18a signals a transition,^[152] and represents a topic shift. The clause summarizes the preceding situations (which would typically imply God's judgment), then transitions into a new discourse unit that presents the community's innocence.
The construction בָּאַתְנוּ has the sense of come upon us. While pronominal suffixes often indicate an accusative (i.e., direct object), they can also indicate datives with certain verbs.^[153] This is the case with בָּאַתְנוּ, where the 1cp suffix indicates the location ("to us") of the intransitive qal בוא.
The concessive sense of even though we have not neglected you (וְלֹא שְׁכַחֲנוּךָ) can be introduced by a simple waw conjunction, as is the case here.^[154] The concept of שׁכח, "to forget," does not simply denote a mental process, but often implies an appropriate action that one is moved to take.^[155] Often this entails a neglect of obligations,^[156] which appears to be the case here with respect to covenant faithfulness (cf. v. 18c).

v. 19

Watch the Overview video on v. 19.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
19a	לֹא־נָס֣וֹג אָח֣וֹר לִבֵּ֑נוּ	Our heart has not backslid—
19b	וַתֵּ֥ט אֲשֻׁרֵ֗ינוּ מִנִּ֥י אָרְחֶֽךָ׃	that is, our steps have not deviated from your path.

Expanded Paraphrase

Our—that is, Israel's—heart, as the seat of reasoning and planning, has not backslid morally, so our defeat does not make sense as a consequence for our disobedience; that is, by referring to backsliding, I mean that our steps, as an image of life actions, have not morally deviated from your—that is, God's—path, or standard of holiness; so our defeat does not make sense as a consequence for our disobedience.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

Although the negative particle לֹא only occurs in the first half of this verse, its force is extended to the second, juxtaposed clause.^[157]
The use of the singular form of heart with a plural pronominal suffix (e.g., לִבֵּנוּ, v. 19a) is common in BH (134 occurrences), and occurs 22 times in the Psalms.^[158] By contrast, the plural form of לֵב with a suffix only appears once in the Psalter (Ps 125:4). The singular form here in 44:19 is likely collective in meaning, a phenomenon that can occur with almost any word.^[159] While essentially equivalent to the plural on a semantic level, this collective use of לֵב could be a reflection of corporate solidarity, in which the community's covenant fidelity is measured by the faithfulness of its collective "heart" (see The Speaker of Ps. 44:5, 7, 16–17). The image of the human heart refers to the seat of knowledge, reasoning, planning, and emotion.^[160]
While typically associated with temporal succession, it is likely that the wayyiqtol וַתֵּט is epexegetical, in that it explains the preceding clause (i.e., "we have not backslid, that is, our steps have not deviated from your path").^[161] In the current context, the verb denotes the resulting state of an anterior action (perfect of result); as such, no reference point movement is expected.
Feminine plural nouns of things, such as our steps (אֲשֻׁרֵינוּ), can sometimes function as collectives, and thus take a feminine singular verb, as is the case here with the singular deviated (וַתֵּט).^[162] The term אָרְחֶֽ is here used figuratively to refer to a pattern of behavior.^[163]

v. 20

Watch the Overview video on v. 20.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
20a	כִּ֣י דִ֭כִּיתָנוּ בִּמְק֣וֹם תַּנִּ֑ים	Yet you have crushed us in the place of jackals,
20b	וַתְּכַ֖ס עָלֵ֣ינוּ בְצַלְמָֽוֶת׃	and thus you have covered us with deepest shadow.

Expanded Paraphrase

Yet, contrary to expectations, you, God, have crushed, as an image of total destruction, us, Israel, in the place of jackals, which are scavenging animals, associated with uninhabited wastelands, and thus, by crushing us, you have covered us with deepest shadow, an image of sorrow, fear, and danger.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

As it governs both clauses of v. 20ab, the particle כִּי could be construed as a discourse marker. However, such an understanding would entail a continuation or elaboration of the preceding discourse,^[164] and would be best translated as a causal ("because") or assertive ("in fact, indeed").^[165] As this does not appear to fit the context of v. 20, it is preferable to view כִּי as an adversative. This would conform with the observation that adversative כִּי overwhelmingly occurs after a main clause with a negative particle^[166]—in this case v. 19. Thus, it appears that כִּי is functioning as an adversative connective that governs both clauses of v. 20ab, rather than marking a discourse division.
Some Hebrew manuscripts, along with the Syriac, read "sea monster" (תנין) instead of jackals (תַּנִּים). The LXX reads κακώσεως, "ill-treatment,"^[167] though it should be noted that LXX tends to be inconsistent in its rendering of תַּנִּים (cf. Isa 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 10:22), and appears to translate it as δρακόντων "dragons"^[168] in Jer 9:10. While some have suggested that תַּנִּים itself can mean "sea monster,"^[169] most modern translations render the term as "jackal." Taken with the construct form of place (מְקוֹם), "jackal" makes better sense in context, as "the place of the sea monster" would imply a sea setting, which does not seem to fit the situation.

Syrian Jackal (Canis aureus syriacus). Tel Aviv, Israel. (CC: Jan Ebr)

As jackals are typically associated with uninhabited wastes, the image of "the place of jackals" (מְקוֹם תַּנִּים) is a depiction of God's wrath.^[170] Jackals are depicted as howling mournfully in waste places (Mic 1:8).^[171] They, along with other scavengers, dwelt in the zones between arable land and the desert.^[172]
While typically associated with temporal succession, the wayyiqtol וַתְּכַס likely constitutes a summary remark (i.e., "you have crushed us... and thus you have covered us...").^[173] In the current context, the verb denotes the resulting state of an anterior action (perfect of result). As such, no reference point movement is expected.
The preposition ב of with deepest shadow (בְצַלְמָוֶת) indicates the instrument of covering,^[174] by which an action is realized.^[175] In this construction, it indicates covering "by (means of)" deep darkness.^[176]
The etymology of צַלְמָוֶת is debated, with several English translations treating it as a compound of צֵל "shadow" and מָוֶת "death."^[177] hence, "shadow of death" (ESV, NASB, KJV, ASV). This understanding is also reflected in the LXX's σκιὰ θανάτου. Alternatively, some scholars treat צַלְמָוֶת as being cognate with ṣalāmu, "to be dark," attested in Akkadian and Arabic.^[178] This understanding possibly underlies renderings of "deep darkness" (NIV, NRSV, CSB, NCV, REB). However, even if one affirms the etymology behind "shadow of death," the idiomatic sense of the term could be that of deepest shadow, as מָוֶת would likely be functioning as a superlative.^[179] The term צַלְמָוֶת is used in contexts that imply sorrow, fear, or danger.^[180]

vv. 21–22

Watch the Overview video on v. 21–22.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
21a	אִם־שָׁ֭כַחְנוּ שֵׁ֣ם אֱלֹהֵ֑ינוּ	If we have neglected our God's name—
21b	וַנִּפְרֹ֥שׂ כַּ֝פֵּ֗ינוּ לְאֵ֣ל זָֽר׃	that is, if we had spread our palms in prayer to another god—
22a	הֲלֹ֣א אֱ֭לֹהִים יַֽחֲקָר־זֹ֑את	could not God investigate this,
22b	כִּֽי־ה֥וּא יֹ֝דֵ֗עַ תַּעֲלֻמ֥וֹת לֵֽב׃	since he knows the heart's secrets?

Expanded Paraphrase

[21] If, contrary to fact, we, Israel, had neglected our God’s name, or character—that is, by neglect, I mean that if we had spread our palms, as a posture of prayer, in prayer to another idolatrous god, which betrays God and violates the covenant—

[22] could not God, if he thought there was cause for concern, formally investigate this unfaithfulness? But he did not, because he knows there is no cause for concern, since he, the all-knowing God, knows the heart’s secrets—that is, he discerns the innermost parts of the human seat of reasoning and planning. He already knows the answer and has no need for a formal investigation. If there were one, it would only vindicate us.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

While the particle if (אִם) typically introduces a real (as opposed to unreal, contrary-to-fact) condition, this distinction is not always consistent.^[181] Here, the protasis of the conditional clause is unreal (i.e., "If we had neglected [but we have not]...").
God's name (שֵׁם) refers to the core of his identity, reflecting the essence of his being.^[182]
The conditional particle אִם can extend its force to a second conditional clause,^[183] as it does here with v. 21b.
The concept of "forgetting" (שׁכח) does not simply denote a mental process, but often implies an appropriate action that one is moved to take.^[184] Often this entails a neglect of obligations,^[185] which appears to be the case here, with respect to Israel's responsibility to live in accordance with God's revealed character.
The image depicted by spread[ing] our palms (וַנִּפְרֹשׂ כַּפֵּינוּ) is that of presenting one's empty palms in supplication to a god/God, and thus is an idiomatic expression describing prayer.^[186] While typically associated with temporal succession, the wayyiqtol וַנִּפְרֹשׂ is likely epexegetical, in that it explains the preceding clause (i.e., "had we forgotten... that is, if we had spread our palms...").^[187]
The interrogative would not...? (הֲלֺא) introduces the apodosis (i.e., the main clause of the conditional sentence) of the preceding clause.^[188]
The term God (אֱלֹהִים) of v. 22a is fronted, and indicates a shift in topic, which becomes the base of predication for the remainder of the sentence.^[189]
The verb investigated (יַֽחֲקָר) connotes diligent, difficult probing, often applied in wisdom contexts regarding legal cases, proverbs, or other subjects.^[190] The theme of God searching, testing, and knowing the human heart appears elsewhere in the Psalter (Pss 26:2; 139:23).

v. 23

Watch the Overview video on v. 23.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
23a	כִּֽי־עָ֭לֶיךָ הֹרַ֣גְנוּ כָל־הַיּ֑וֹם	Yet we have been killed because of you all day long.
23b	נֶ֝חְשַׁ֗בְנוּ כְּצֹ֣אן טִבְחָֽה׃	We are considered as sheep to be slaughtered.

Expanded Paraphrase

Yet, contrary to expectation, we, Israel, have been killed in battle, and are currently under threat of death, because of you, God, the cause of our defeat and humiliation, all day long, or continually. We are considered by our enemies as unwitting sheep, a vulnerable animal to be slaughtered for food, and so we are under imminent threat of death. We do not know why you would send your innocent sheep to be slaughtered.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

As the particle כִּי introduces both clauses of v. 23, its function could be construed as a discourse marker that introduces a larger portion of text. However, such an understanding would entail a continuation or elaboration of the preceding discourse,^[191] and would be best translated as a causal ("because") or assertive ("in fact, indeed").^[192] As these do not appear to fit the context of v. 23, it is preferable to view כִּֽי as an adversative. This would conform with the observation that adversative כִּֽי overwhelmingly occurs after a main clause with a negative particle^[193]—in this case v. 22a. The negative interrogative of v. 22a establishes the community's innocence, while v. 23 introduces the contrastive experience of death, "Yet..."
The fronted prepositional phrase because of you (עָלֶיךָ) indicates exhaustive completive focus. In other words, from an open set of possibilities (completive), the selected element is the only one that leads to a true proposition (exhaustive).^[194] In the present context, the fronted עָלֶיךָ indicates, "because of you [and no other possible cause], we are killed..."
The preposition עַל of עָלֶיךָ (v. 23a) can indicate indirect goal, "for the sake of,"^[195] or cause, "because of,"^[196] The distinction between goals and causes can be difficult to distinguish.^[197] However, within the present context of lament, the portrayal of God as the active agent in the psalmist's suffering points to a causal nuance.
While the psalmist has not literally been killed (הֹרַגְנוּ), the inclusion of himself in the first-person plural could be explained on the basis of corporate solidarity (see The Speaker of Ps. 44:5, 7, and 16), wherein the experience of the community is shared by the individual. Thus, Israel's corporate experience of death by means of military defeat (v. 10) or plundering (v. 11) is reflected in the individual experience of the psalmist as well.
It is possible that the stem of "we have been killed" (הֹרַ֣גְנוּ) is passive qal, rather than pual .^[198] In the current context, the verb denotes the resulting state of an anterior action (perfect of result). As such, no reference point movement is expected. The temporal modifier all day long (כָל־הַיּוֹם) also suggests either iterative/habitual action (i.e., "[people] are constantly being killed") or continuous action (i.e., "we are in the process of being killed" >> "we are under constant threat of death").
Sheep (צֹאן) are portrayed as vulnerable prey in need of protection.^[199] Sheep in the ANE were primarily raised for their wool. To slaughter a sheep for a guest was a sign of honor and hospitality.^[200] On the other hand, firstborn sheep in Israel were set aside for consumption by the priests (Num 18:17–18). Notably, firstborn sheep could not be redeemed (פדה; Num 18:17), possibly creating an unresolved tension with 44:27b.
The genitive טִבְחָה indicates the purpose of the head noun צֹאן (i.e., "sheep for slaughtering >> sheep to be slaughtered").^[201]

Save Us, God! (vv. 24–27)

This final section is distinct due to its concentration of volitive forms in vv. 24 and 27. Furthermore, interrogative particles such as לָמָּה (vv. 24, 25) tend to occur at the beginning of strophes.^[202] Applying these phenomena yields a section composed of three subsections (v. 24; vv. 25–26; v. 27), with two supplications bracketing an interrogative lament.

v. 24

Watch the Overview video on v. 24.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
24a	ע֤וּרָה ׀ לָ֖מָּה תִישַׁ֥ן ׀ אֲדֹנָ֑י	Awake! Why do you sleep, Lord?
24b	הָ֝קִ֗יצָה אַל־תִּזְנַ֥ח לָנֶֽצַח׃	Wake up! Do not keep rejecting [us] forever!

Expanded Paraphrase

God, awake, or take action, because you seem to be inactive! Why do you, the God who never sleeps, appear to sleep, Lord, to whom we submit? God, wake up and take action, because you seem to be inactive! God, do not keep rejecting [us], Israel, forever, as you seem to be doing now, or else we will be destroyed!

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

Without reference point movement, the yiqtol typically denotes habitual action. The nature of sleep (תִישַׁן), however, suggests continual action. Furthermore, the yiqtol form can denote continuous action when used in questions. In these cases, they communicate an "actual present," i.e., the action in question is assumed to continue up until the moment of speaking.^[203] The depiction of a god/God sleeping is an anthropomorphism to describe divine inaction.^[204] Elsewhere in the Bible, God is described as one who does not slumber nor sleep (Ps 121:4), while the Canaanite god Baal is mocked for being "asleep" (i.e. for his inaction) by Elijah (1 Kgs 18:27). Depicting God as asleep is an emotional expression, rather than a declaration of theological fact.^[205]
When used in אֲדֹנָי, the 1cs suffix loses its force, as the entire construction is understood as a divine title, Lord.^[206] The vocative אֲדֹנָי in v. 24a is likely serving to delimit the end of the clause and signal the end of the poetic line.^[207]
The term נֵצַח is typically understood as "endurance, everlastingness, endlessness."^[208] However, it has been noted that this meaning is difficult in instances where it is found alongside temporal questions of "How long?" (Pss 13:2; 74:10; 79:5; 89:47). It has been suggested that, based on a root meaning of "pre-eminent," נֵצַח can communicate a superlative sense.^[209] If so, then the sense of לָנֶצַח in v. 24b would be, "Do not reject utterly." However, as the traditional rendering of forever is intelligible—even in difficult cases—by means of literary device, this temporal rendering is preferred.^[210]

v. 25

Watch the Overview video on v. 25.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
25a	לָֽמָּה־פָנֶ֥יךָ תַסְתִּ֑יר	Why are you hiding your countenance?
25b	תִּשְׁכַּ֖ח עָנְיֵ֣נוּ וְֽלַחֲצֵֽנוּ׃	Why are you neglecting our affliction and oppression?

Expanded Paraphrase

Why are you, God, hiding your countenance, which represents your presence? Why are you neglecting, by not fulfilling your covenant obligations, our affliction and oppression at the hands of enemy nations? If we have not neglected the covenant, neither should you!

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

Interrogative particles may at times be found governing multiple clauses (cf. Pss 2:1–2; 4:3; 13:3), which appears to be the case with Why...? (לָמָּה) in v. 25. It is possible that the lack of לָמָּה in v. 25b is an ellipsis that helps to balance the meter of the poetic lines.^[211] Perhaps a better explanation is that לָמָּה is functioning as a double-duty word that vertically modifies both clauses at the same time.^[212]
The term "your face >> your countenance" (פָנֶיךָ) can be used figuratively to refer to one's presence.^[213] While the placement of the direct object פָנֶיךָ before the verb represents non-default word order, it is possible that this is due to poetic binding. The placement of תַסְתִּיר at the end of v. 25a (and crucially, the end of the poetic line) forms a tail-head linkage with the following line-initial תִּשְׁכַּח in v. 25b.
Without reference point movement, the yiqtol typically denotes habitual action. The nature of hiding (תַסְתִּיר, v. 25a) and neglecting (תִּשְׁכַּח, v. 25b), however, suggests continual action. Furthermore, the yiqtol form can denote continuous action when used in questions. In these cases, they communicate an "actual present," i.e., the action in question is assumed to continue up until the moment of speaking.^[214]
Similar to the image of sleeping (see note on v. 24b), the depiction of God hiding his face is an emotional expression, rather than a statement of theological fact.

v. 26

Watch the Overview video on v. 26.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
26a	כִּ֤י שָׁ֣חָה לֶעָפָ֣ר נַפְשֵׁ֑נוּ	For our soul has sunk down into the dust;
26b	דָּבְקָ֖ה לָאָ֣רֶץ בִּטְנֵֽנוּ׃	our belly clings to the earth.

Expanded Paraphrase

For our soul, our inner being, has sunk down in spiritual depression into the dust of the grave, since we are on the verge of death; our belly, our vulnerable being, clings to the earth in spiritual depression, on the verge of death.

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

As a discourse marker, the particle כִּי in v. 26a serves to "hold the floor" to provide a continuation or elaboration of the preceding discourse.^[215] As this discourse function likely developed from the use of כִּי as a causal connective, the causal translation of "because/for" is appropriate here.^[216]
Typically connected with the root I-שׁוח "to sink down," most modern translations render v. 26a along the lines of, "our soul has sunk/bowed down to the dust." This could also be idiomatically understood as "to be downcast, depressed."^[217] Alternatively, the verb could be associated with the root III-שׁוח^[218] or שׁיח,^[219] "to melt." As the Aramaic and Syriac cognates of שׁיח can have the sense of "to melt away, vanish," it is possible that this would imply a sense of dissolution. Thus, melting away to dust (לֶעָפָר) could have the sense of dissolving into dust, or becoming dust (cf. Gen 3:19). However, in light of the parallel line that follows ("our body clings to the earth"), it seems preferable to associate שָׁחָה with a downward movement, either physically down to the dust, or idiomatically with respect to being emotionally downcast.^[220]
The image of our belly (בִּטְנֵֽנוּ) can have a number of connotations, among which is the vulnerable part of the body, and thus the shelter of one's essence.^[221]

v. 27

Watch the Overview video on v. 27.

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-Clear
27a	ק֭וּמָֽה עֶזְרָ֣תָה לָּ֑נוּ	Arise to our aid,
27b	וּ֝פְדֵ֗נוּ לְמַ֣עַן חַסְדֶּֽךָ׃	and redeem us because of your faithfulness!

Expanded Paraphrase

God, arise in action to our aid, to deliver victory over our enemies! And, God, redeem us, Israel, just as you redeemed our ancestors from Egypt, by substituting our enemies in our place, because of your faithfulness, or covenant loyalty, because we know—in spite of our experience—that you are still a faithful God!

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

The תָה◌ָ- ending of the noun aid (עֶזְרָתָה) could be construed as a locative-ה ("to [our] aid"). However, it is more likely that the ending has been added to avoid the contact of two stressed syllables (in this case, עֶזְרָ֣ה לָּ֑נוּ).^[222] Nevertheless, in the present context, the adverbial accusative עֶזְרָתָה would have a similar sense to that of the locative, in that it indicates the goal of a directed activity ("to/for [our] help").^[223] The concept of עזר, "help, aid," occurs in the HB with regard to a variety of circumstances, but often refers to military assistance.^[224]
The basic meaning of the verb redeem (פדה) is "to achieve the transfer of ownership from one to another through payment of a price or an equivalent substitute."^[225] While the commercial concept of payment sometimes recedes in contexts of deliverance from danger),^[226] here in Ps 44, the term could be understood as a reversal of God's "selling" his people (v. 13). In cultic contexts, פדה often refers to the redemption of firstborn people and animals (Exod 13:13; Lev 27:27; Num 18:15–17). As all firstborns belong exclusively to YHWH, their ritual death is entailed; however, redemption for an equivalent price allows the firstborn's continued life.^[227] As Israel is considered God's firstborn (Exod 4:22), it seems notable that firstborn sheep could not be redeemed (פדה; Num 18:17). This creates a tension between God's treatment of Israel as sheep (vv. 12, 23), and the plea for redemption here. While unresolved, this tension could function as a reminder that God's treatment of Israel has been seemingly inconsistent with covenant expectations.

Legends

Grammatical diagram

The grammar layer visually represents the grammar and syntax of each clause. It also displays alternative interpretations of the grammar. (For more information, click "Grammar Legend" below.)

Visualization	Description
	The clause is represented by a horizontal line with a vertical line crossing through it, separating the subject and the verb.
	The object is indicated by a vertical line that does not cross the horizontal line of the clause. Infinitives and participles may also have objects. If the direct object marker (d.o.m.) is present in the text, it appears in the diagram immediately before the object. If the grammar includes a secondary object, the secondary object will appear after the object, separated by another vertical line that does not cross the horizontal line of the clause.
	The subject complement follows the verb (often omitted in Hebrew) separated with a line leaning toward the right. It can be a noun, a whole prepositional phrase or an adjective. The later two appear modifying the complement slot.
	When a noun further describes or renames the object, it is an object complement. The object complement follows the object separated by a line leaning toward the right.
	In a construct chain, the noun in the absolute form modifies the noun in the construct form.
	Participles are indicated in whatever position in the clause they are in with a curved line before the participle. Participles can occur as nominal, where they take the place of a noun, predicate, where they take the place of a verb, or attributive, where they modify a noun or a verb similar to adjectives or adverbs.
	Infinitives are indicated by two parallel lines before the infinitive that cross the horizontal line. Infinitive constructs can appear as the verb in an embedded clause. Infinitive absolutes typically appear as an adverbial.
	The subject of the infinitive often appears in construct to it. In this situation, the infinitive and subject are diagrammed as a construct chain.
	The object of the infinitive is indicated by a vertical line that does not cross the horizontal line of the infinitival clause.
	Modifiers are represented by a solid diagonal line from the word they modify. They can attach to verbs, adjectives, or nouns. If modifying a verb or adjective, it is an adverb, but if modifying a noun, it is an adjective, a quantifier, or a definite article. If an adverb is modifying a modifier, it is connected to the modifier by a small dashed horizontal line.
	Adverbials are indicated by a dashed diagonal line extending to a horizontal line. These are nouns or infinitives that function adverbially (modifying either a verb or a participle), but are not connected by a preposition.
	Prepositional phrases are indicated by a solid diagonal line extending to a horizontal line. The preposition is to the left of the diagonal line and the dependent of the preposition is on the horizontal line. They can modify verbs (adverbial) or nouns (adjectival).
	Embedded clauses are indicated by a "stand" that looks like an upside-down Y. The stand rests in the grammatical position that the clause fulfills. Extending from the top of the stand is a horizontal line for the clause. If introduced by a complementizer, for example כִּי, the complementizer appears before the stand. Embedded clauses can stand in the place of any noun.
	When clauses are joined by a conjunction, they are compound clauses. These clauses are connected by a vertical dotted line. The conjunction is placed next to the dotted line.
	Within a clause, if two or more parts of speech are compound, these are represented by angled lines reaching to the two compound elements connected by a solid vertical line. If a conjunction is used, the conjunction appears to the left of the vertical line. Almost all parts of speech can be compound.
	Subordinate clauses are indicated by a dashed line coming from the line dividing the subject from the predicate in the independent clause and leading to the horizontal line of the subordinate clause. The subordinating conjunction appears next to the dashed line.
	Relative clauses also have a dashed line, but the line connects the antecedent to the horizontal line of the relative clause. The relative particle appears next to the dashed line.
	Sentence fragments are represented by a horizontal line with no vertical lines. They are most frequently used in superscriptions to psalms. They are visually similar to discourse particles and vocatives, but most often consist of a noun phrase (that does not refer to a person or people group) or a prepositional phrase.
	In the body of the psalm, a horizontal line by itself (with no modifiers or vertical lines) can indicate either a discourse particle or a vocative (if the word is a noun referring to a person or people group). A discourse particle is a conjunction or particle that functions at the discourse level, not at the grammatical level. Vocatives can appear either before or after the clause addressed to them, depending on the word order of the Hebrew.
	Apposition is indicated by an equal sign equating the two noun phrases. This can occur with a noun in any function in a sentence.

Hebrew text colors
Default preferred text	The default preferred reading is represented by a black line. The text of the MT is represented in bold black text.
Dispreferred reading	The dispreferred reading is an alternative interpretation of the grammar, represented by a pink line. The text of the MT is represented in bold pink text, while emendations and revocalizations retain their corresponding colors (see below).
Emended text	Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is represented by bold blue text, whether that reading is preferred or dispreferred.
Revocalized text	Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is represented by bold purple text, whether that reading is preferred or dispreferred.
(Supplied elided element)	Any element that is elided in the Hebrew text is represented by bold gray text in parentheses.
( )	The position of a non-supplied elided element is represented by empty black parentheses. For example, this would be used in the place of the noun when an adjective functions substantivally or in the place of the antecedent when a relative clause has an implied antecedent.

Gloss text colors
Gloss used in the CBC	The gloss used in the Close-but-Clear translation is represented by bold blue text.
Literal gloss >> derived meaning	A gloss that shows the more literal meaning as well as the derived figurative meaning is represented in blue text with arrows pointing towards the more figurative meaning. The gloss used in the CBC will be bolded.
Supplied elided element	The gloss for a supplied elided element is represented in bold gray text.

Shapes and colours on grammatical diagram

(For more information, click "Phrase-level Legend" below.)

Visualization	Description
	The prepositional phrase is indicated by a solid green oval.
	The construct chain is indicated by a solid yellow oval.
	When the conjunction ו appears at the phrase-level (not clause-level), it is indicated by a solid light purple oval.
	The article is indicated by a solid blue oval.

Expanded paraphrase

(For more information, click "Expanded Paraphrase Legend" below.)

Expanded paraphrase legend
Close but Clear (CBC) translation	The CBC, our close but clear translation of the Hebrew, is represented in bold text.
Assumptions	Assumptions which provide background information, presuppositions, entailments, and inferences are represented in italics.

Bibliography

Alonso Schökel, Luis, and Cecilia Carniti. 1992. Salmos I (Salmos 1–72): Traducción, Introducciones y Comentario. Navarra: Verbo Divino.

Arnold, Bill T., and John H. Choi. 2018. A Guide to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Baethgen, Friedrich. 1904. Die Psalmen. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht.

Barbiero, Gianni, and Marco Pavan. 2012. "Ps 44,15; 57,10; 108,4; 149,7: בלאמים or בל־אמים?" ZAW 124:598–605.

Bosma, Carl J. 2008. “Discerning the Voices in the Psalms: A Discussion of Two Problems in Psalmic Interpretation.” Calvin Theological Journal 43, no. 2: 183–212.

Craigie, Peter. 2004. Psalms 1–50. 2nd ed. WBC 19. Nashville: Nelson.

Crow, Loren D. 1992. “The Rhetoric of Psalm 44.” ZAW 104, no. 3: 394–401.

Dahood, Mitchell. 1966. Psalms I: 1–50. Anchor Bible. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

Davidson, A. B. 1902. Introductory Hebrew Grammar Hebrew Syntax. 3d ed. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.

deClaissé-Walford, Nancy L. 2007. “Psalm 44: O God, Why Do You Hide Your Face?” Review & Expositor 104, no. 4: 745–59.

deClaissé-Walford, Nancy, Rolf A. Jacobson, and Beth LaNeel Tanner. 2014. The Book of Psalms. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

de Regt, Lénart. 2020. Linguistic Coherence in Biblical Hebrew Texts. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press.

________. 2013. "Participant Reference in Discourse: Biblical Hebrew." In Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics Online. Edited by Geoffrey Khan. Brill.

Ehrlich, Arnold B. 1905. Die Psalmen. Berlin: Verlag Von M. Poppelauer.

Fokkelman, J.P. 2003. Major Poems of the Hebrew Bible: At the Interface of Prosody and Structural Analysis. Vol. 3. Assen: Van Gorcum.

Freedman, David Noel, Gary A. Herion, David F. Graf, John David Pleins, and Astrid B. Beck, eds. 1992 The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary. New York: Doubleday

Goldingay, John. 2007. Psalms. Vol. 2. Baker Commentary on the Old Testament Wisdom and Psalms. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic.

Hengstenberg, Ernst Wilhelm. 1863. Commentary on the Psalms. Vol. 1, Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.

Holmstedt, Robert D., and Andrew R. Jones. 2014. “The Pronoun in Tripartite Verbless Clauses in Biblical Hebrew: Resumption for Left-Dislocation or Pronominal Copula?” Journal of Semitic Studies 59 (1):53–89.

Keel, Othmar, and Timothy J. Hallett, trans. 1997. The Symbolism of the Biblical World: Ancient Near Eastern Iconography and the Book of Psalms. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.

Khan, Geoffrey, and Christo H.J. Van Der Merwe. 2020. “Towards A Comprehensive Model For Interpreting Word Order In Classical Biblical Hebrew.” Journal of Semitic Studies 65 (2):347–90.

Kim, Young Bok. 2023. Hebrew Forms of Address: A Sociolinguistic Analysis. Atlanta: SBL Press.

King, Philip J., and Lawrence E. Stager. 2001. Life in Biblical Israel. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press.

Kittel, Rudolf. 1922. Die Psalmen. Leipzig: A. Deichertsche Verlagsbuchhandlung Dr. Werner Scholl.

Kraus, Hans-Joachim. 1988. Psalms 1–59. Translated by Hilton C. Oswald. Minneapolis: Ausburg.

Locatell, Christian S. 2017. “Grammatical Polysemy in the Hebrew Bible: A Cognitive Linguistic Approach to כי.” PhD Dissertation, University of Stellenbosch.

Lunn, Nicholas P. 2006. Word-Order Variation in Biblical Hebrew Poetry: Differentiating Pragmatics and Poetics. Paternoster Biblical Monographs. Milton Keynes: Paternoster.

Miller, Cynthia L. 2010. "Vocative Syntax in Biblical Hebrew Prose and Poetry: A Preliminary Analysis." Journal of Semitic Studies 55 (2):347–364.

Niccacci, Alviero. 2006. “The Biblical Hebrew Verbal System in Poetry.” Pages 247–68 in Biblical Hebrew in Its Northwest Semitic Setting: Typological and Historical Perspectives. Edited by Steven E. Fassberg and Avi Hurvitz. Jerusalem: Hebrew University Magnes Press.

Olyan, Saul M. 1996. “Honor, Shame, and Covenant Relations in Ancient Israel and Its Environment.” Journal of Biblical Literature 115 (2):201–18.

Price, James D. 1990. The Syntax of Masoretic Accents in the Bible. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press.

Putnam, Frederic Clarke. 2002. Hebrew Bible Insert: A Student’s Guide to the Syntax of Biblical Hebrew. Quakertown, PA: Stylus Publishing.

Ryken, Leland, Jim Wilhoit, Tremper Longman, Colin Duriez, Douglas Penney, and Daniel G. Reid, eds. 2000. Dictionary of Biblical Imagery. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.

Schaefer, Konrad. 2001. Psalms. Berit Olam Studies in Hebrew Narrative and Poetry. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press.

Silva, Moisés, and Merrill Chapin Tenney, eds. 2009. The Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible, Q-Z. Volume 5. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

Terrien, Samuel. 2003. The Psalms: Strophic Structure and Theological Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Thomas, David Winton. 1956. "Use of Netsach as a Superlative in Hebrew." Journal of Semitic Studies 1 (2): 106–9.

Tsumura, David Toshio. 2017. "Verticality in Biblical Hebrew Parallelism." Pages 189–206 in Advances in Biblical Hebrew Linguistics. Edited by Adina Moshavi and Tania Notarius. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.

van der Lugt, Pieter. 2010. Cantos and Strophes in Biblical Hebrew Poetry II: Psalms 42-89. Leiden: Brill.

van der Merwe, Christo H. J. 2009. "The Biblical Hebrew Particle אַף." VT 59: 266–283.

van der Merwe, Christo H. J., and Ernst R. Wendland. 2010. "Marked Word Order in the Book of Joel. Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages 36 (2): 109–130.

VanGemeren, Willem A. 2008. “Psalms.” REBC 5. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

Watson, Wilfred G. E. 1986. Classical Hebrew Poetry: A Guide to Its Techniques. JSOT 26. Sheffield: JSOT Press.

Wendland, Ernst R. 2002. Analyzing the Psalms: With Exercises for Bible Students and Translators. 2nd ed. Dallas: SIL International.

Young, Ian. 2013. “Collectives: Biblical Hebrew.” Pages 1:477–79 in Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics. Edited by Geoffrey Khan. Leiden: Brill.

Footnotes

44

↑ The Hebrew text comes from Open Scriptures Hebrew Bible, which presents the text of the Leningrad Codex (the Masoretic text). The English text is our own "Close-but-clear" translation (CBC). The CBC is a “wooden” translation that exists to provide a window into the Hebrew text. It is essentially an interlinear that has been put into English word-order. It is also similar to a “back-translation” (of the Hebrew) often used in Bible translation checking. It is important to remember that the CBC is not intended to be a stand-alone translation, but is rather a tool for using the Layer by Layer materials. The CBC is used as the primary display text (along with the Hebrew) for most analytical visualisations. It is also used as the display text for most videos.
↑ A legend for the expanded paraphrase is available near the bottom of this page, in the section titled "Legends."
↑ Legends for both the grammatical diagram and the shapes and colours on the grammatical diagram are available near the bottom of this page, in the section titled "Legends."
↑ Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary, 4:100.
↑ Craigie 2004, 264.
↑ Ibid.
↑ HALOT; cf. Gen 48:14
↑ Koenen 1991, 112.
↑ Contra Terrien 2003, 358.
↑ Kim 2023, 136.
↑ Lunn 2006, 43, 241.
↑ TWOT, 6.
↑ Cf. VanGemeren 2008, 390.
↑ DCH.
↑ Craigie 2004, 333.
↑ Craigie 2004, 333.
↑ Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 366.
↑ SDBH.
↑ NETS.
↑ JM §151c.
↑ Cf. GKC §144l–m.
↑ This could suggest reading the wayyiqtol verbs as either adversative, in contrast to the preceding statements about the nations ("but them you planted... but them you set free...," NRSV), or as purpose/resultative ("in order to plant them... in order to settle them...," CSB).
↑ NIDOTTE, 4:119.
↑ HALOT.
↑ DCH, 8:384.
↑ DCH, "שׁלח-IV," 8:389; cf. VanGemeren 2008, 390.
↑ NIDOTTE, 4:120, 121.
↑ Niccacci 2006, 257–58.
↑ Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 271.
↑ TWOT, 854–55.
↑ Locatell 2017, 274.
↑ Locatell 2017, 274.
↑ Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 367; Lunn 2006, 242.
↑ GKC §119o.
↑ Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 835. BH makes no distinction between the straight sword, used for stabbing, and the curved blade, used for slashing; so King and Stager 2001, 224.
↑ NIDOTTE, 2:556.
↑ NIDOTTE, 2:560.
↑ JM §133d.
↑ SDBH.
↑ SDBH.
↑ SDBH.
↑ TWOT, 25.
↑ NIDOTTE, 3:1186.
↑ NIDOTTE, 3:1186.
↑ See Wendland 2002, 63.
↑ Lunn 2006, 243.
↑ Holmstedt and Jones 2014, 59.
↑ So Hengstenberg 1863, 113.
↑ Holmstedt and Jones 2014, 59.
↑ BHRG §36.1.1.2[4].
↑ Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 476.
↑ Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 478.
↑ So TWOT, 508; cf. 1 Sam 8:5.
↑ JM §136g.
↑ NIDOTTE, 2:556.
↑ NIDOTTE, 2:560.
↑ Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 367.
↑ GKC §119o.
↑ Cf. van der Merwe and Wendland 2010, 116.
↑ NIDOTTE, 3:19.
↑ NIDOTTE, 3:19.
↑ So DCH, 8:429.
↑ Cf. 1 Sam 17:45; TWOT, 934.
↑ SDBH.
↑ SDBH.
↑ SDBH.
↑ TWOT, 96.
↑ DCH.
↑ JM §125ba.
↑ HALOT.
↑ Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 367.
↑ Locatell 2017, 274.
↑ Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 367.
↑ GKC, §119l.
↑ Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 41.
↑ King and Stager 2001, 227.
↑ Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 835.
↑ King and Stager 2001, 224.
↑ NIDOTTE, 2:556.
↑ NIDOTTE, 2:560.
↑ Locatell 2017, 274.
↑ NIDOTTE, 2:556.
↑ NIDOTTE, 2:560.
↑ TWOT, 98.
↑ TWOT, 98.
↑ GKC §119l.
↑ Arnold and Choi, §4.1.5e.
↑ SDBH.
↑ Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 369.
↑ SDBH.
↑ SDBH.
↑ TWOT, 365.
↑ Kraus 1988, 28.
↑ Craigie 2004, 76.
↑ BHRG §40.14.
↑ Cf. DCH.
↑ van der Merwe 2009, 270n22.
↑ Cf. Ps 68:19; van der Merwe 2009, 281; Lunn 2006, 69.
↑ Cf. DCH.
↑ Cf. similar construction in Ps 89:39; BHRG §21.2.2.
↑ Olyan 1996, 204.
↑ IBHS, §31.4h; JM, §133n.
↑ HALOT.
↑ Young 2013, 478; צָבָא would be a collective "group noun" in this analysis.
↑ Cf. TLOT, 1041–42.
↑ King and Stager 2001, 240.
↑ King and Stager 2001, 241.
↑ Niccacci 2006, 257–58.
↑ HALOT.
↑ DCH.
↑ NETS.
↑ Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible, 5:600.
↑ Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible, 5:600–601.
↑ Craigie 2004, 330; NET Notes; so REB, NJB.
↑ DCH, 8:515.
↑ Niccacci 2006, 257–58.
↑ King and Stager 2001, 114.
↑ King and Stager 2001, 113.
↑ NIDOTTE, 1:1144.
↑ NIDOTTE, 1:1145.
↑ Niccacci 2006, 257–58.
↑ Arnold and Choi 2018, §4.1.5j; BHRG §39.6.3d.
↑ So Jenni 1992, 152.
↑ So deClaisse-Walford, et al 2014, 411; Goldingay 2007, 36.
↑ DCH, 5:217; 7:397.
↑ So HALOT, 1176.
↑ King and Stager 2001, 194.
↑ King and Stager 2001, 194.
↑ NIDOTTE, 2:280–81.
↑ Goldingay 2007, 44.
↑ Olyan 1996, 204.
↑ HALOT.
↑ NIDOTTE, 2:1134.
↑ NIDOTTE, 2:1135.
↑ NIDOTTE, 3:53.
↑ So Goldingay 2007, 2:36.
↑ Barbiero and Pavan 2012, 599.
↑ Barbiero and Pavan 2012, 603–604.
↑ Schaefer 2001, 112.
↑ TLOT, 206.
↑ Olyan 1996, 204.
↑ So Goldingay 2007, 44.
↑ Putnam 2002, §2.3.1.
↑ Putnam 2002, §§1.8.1c[1]; 1.8.3b.
↑ Baethgen 1904, 21.
↑ Putnam 2002, §2.3.1.
↑ Putnam 2002, §§1.8.1c[1]; 1.8.3b.
↑ Cf. Ps 8:3; NIDOTTE, 3:156.
↑ Arnold and Choi 2018, 4.1.14c.
↑ BHRG, §39.15.
↑ Lugt 2010, 25.
↑ van der Lugt 2010, 25.
↑ JM §125ba; see also Pss 36.12; 119.41, 77; Prov. 28.22; Job 22.21.
↑ Arnold and Choi 2018, §5.2.12.
↑ NIDOTTE, 4:104.
↑ NIDOTTE, 4:104.
↑ JM §160q.
↑ Pss 4:5; 10:17; 22:27; 28:3; 31:25; 33:15, 21; 35:25; 37:15; 44:19; 48:14; 62:9; 69:33; 74:8; 78:18, 37; 81:13; 84:6; 95:8; 105:25; 107:12; 119:70.
↑ Davidson 1902, 19.
↑ SDBH.
↑ BHRG §21.2.2.
↑ JM §150g.
↑ SDBH.
↑ Locatell 2017, 270.
↑ Locatell 2017, 274.
↑ Locatell 2017, 258.
↑ NETS.
↑ NETS.
↑ deClaisse-Walford, et al 2014, 411n11; cf. DCH.
↑ NIDOTTE, 4:310.
↑ NIDOTTE, 4:311.
↑ Keel 1997, 76.
↑ IBHS §33.2.1d.
↑ GKC §119q.
↑ BHRG, §39.6.3a.
↑ So DCH, 4:442.
↑ NIDOTTE, 3:807.
↑ TWOT, 767.
↑ Dahood 1966, 147; hence NJB's "shadow dark as death."
↑ NIDOTTE, 3:807.
↑ GKC, §159m.
↑ SDBH.
↑ GKC, §159.ff.
↑ NIDOTTE, 4:104.
↑ NIDOTTE, 4:104.
↑ SDBH.
↑ BHRG §21.2.2.
↑ GKC, §159n.
↑ Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 24.
↑ TWOT, 318.
↑ Locatell 2017, 270.
↑ Locatell 2017, 274.
↑ Locatell 2017, 258.
↑ Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 365.
↑ BHRG §39.20.3c.
↑ BHRG §39.20.4.
↑ IBHS, §11.2.13e.
↑ HALOT.
↑ King and Stager 2001, 114.
↑ King and Stager 2001, 113.
↑ GKC §128q.
↑ Lugt 2006, 79.
↑ JM, §113d.
↑ Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 799.
↑ Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 800.
↑ GKC, §135q.
↑ Miller 2010, 361.
↑ DCH.
↑ Thomas 1956, 108.
↑ Cf. NIDOTTE, 3:139–40.
↑ Cf. Tsumura 2017, 193.
↑ Tsumura 2017, 193.
↑ DCH.
↑ JM, §113d.
↑ Locatell 2017, 274.
↑ Locatell 2017, 274.
↑ DCH.
↑ So DCH.
↑ So HALOT.
↑ NIDOTTE, 4:98.
↑ Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 87.
↑ JM §93j.
↑ IBHS §10.2.2b.
↑ NIDOTTE, 3:378.
↑ TWOT, 716.
↑ TWOT, 717.
↑ NIDOTTE, 3:578.

[1] The Hebrew text comes from Open Scriptures Hebrew Bible, which presents the text of the Leningrad Codex (the Masoretic text). The English text is our own "Close-but-clear" translation (CBC). The CBC is a “wooden” translation that exists to provide a window into the Hebrew text. It is essentially an interlinear that has been put into English word-order. It is also similar to a “back-translation” (of the Hebrew) often used in Bible translation checking. It is important to remember that the CBC is not intended to be a stand-alone translation, but is rather a tool for using the Layer by Layer materials. The CBC is used as the primary display text (along with the Hebrew) for most analytical visualisations. It is also used as the display text for most videos.

[2] A legend for the expanded paraphrase is available near the bottom of this page, in the section titled "Legends."

[3] Legends for both the grammatical diagram and the shapes and colours on the grammatical diagram are available near the bottom of this page, in the section titled "Legends."

[4] Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary, 4:100.

[5] Craigie 2004, 264.

[6] Ibid.

[7] HALOT; cf. Gen 48:14

[8] Koenen 1991, 112.

[9] Contra Terrien 2003, 358.

[10] Kim 2023, 136.

[11] Lunn 2006, 43, 241.

[12] TWOT, 6.

[13] Cf. VanGemeren 2008, 390.

[14] DCH.

[15] Craigie 2004, 333.

[16] Craigie 2004, 333.

[17] Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 366.

[18] SDBH.

[19] NETS.

[20] JM §151c.

[21] Cf. GKC §144l–m.

[22] This could suggest reading the wayyiqtol verbs as either adversative, in contrast to the preceding statements about the nations ("but them you planted... but them you set free...," NRSV), or as purpose/resultative ("in order to plant them... in order to settle them...," CSB).

[23] NIDOTTE, 4:119.

[24] HALOT.

[25] DCH, 8:384.

[26] DCH, "שׁלח-IV," 8:389; cf. VanGemeren 2008, 390.

[27] NIDOTTE, 4:120, 121.

[28] Niccacci 2006, 257–58.

[29] Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 271.

[30] TWOT, 854–55.

[31] Locatell 2017, 274.

[32] Locatell 2017, 274.

[33] Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 367; Lunn 2006, 242.

[34] GKC §119o.

[35] Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 835. BH makes no distinction between the straight sword, used for stabbing, and the curved blade, used for slashing; so King and Stager 2001, 224.

[36] NIDOTTE, 2:556.

[37] NIDOTTE, 2:560.

[38] JM §133d.

[39] SDBH.

[40] SDBH.

[41] SDBH.

[42] TWOT, 25.

[43] NIDOTTE, 3:1186.

[44] NIDOTTE, 3:1186.

[45] See Wendland 2002, 63.

[46] Lunn 2006, 243.

[47] Holmstedt and Jones 2014, 59.

[48] So Hengstenberg 1863, 113.

[49] Holmstedt and Jones 2014, 59.

[50] BHRG §36.1.1.2[4].

[51] Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 476.

[52] Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 478.

[53] So TWOT, 508; cf. 1 Sam 8:5.

[54] JM §136g.

[55] NIDOTTE, 2:556.

[56] NIDOTTE, 2:560.

[57] Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 367.

[58] GKC §119o.

[59] Cf. van der Merwe and Wendland 2010, 116.

[60] NIDOTTE, 3:19.

[61] NIDOTTE, 3:19.

[62] So DCH, 8:429.

[63] Cf. 1 Sam 17:45; TWOT, 934.

[64] SDBH.

[65] SDBH.

[66] SDBH.

[67] TWOT, 96.

[68] DCH.

[69] JM §125ba.

[70] HALOT.

[71] Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 367.

[72] Locatell 2017, 274.

[73] Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 367.

[74] GKC, §119l.

[75] Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 41.

[76] King and Stager 2001, 227.

[77] Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 835.

[78] King and Stager 2001, 224.

[79] NIDOTTE, 2:556.

[80] NIDOTTE, 2:560.

[81] Locatell 2017, 274.

[82] NIDOTTE, 2:556.

[83] NIDOTTE, 2:560.

[84] TWOT, 98.

[85] TWOT, 98.

[86] GKC §119l.

[87] Arnold and Choi, §4.1.5e.

[88] SDBH.

[89] Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 369.

[90] SDBH.

[91] SDBH.

[92] TWOT, 365.

[93] Kraus 1988, 28.

[94] Craigie 2004, 76.

[95] BHRG §40.14.

[96] Cf. DCH.

[97] van der Merwe 2009, 270n22.

[98] Cf. Ps 68:19; van der Merwe 2009, 281; Lunn 2006, 69.

[99] Cf. DCH.

[100] Cf. similar construction in Ps 89:39; BHRG §21.2.2.

[101] Olyan 1996, 204.

[102] IBHS, §31.4h; JM, §133n.

[103] HALOT.

[104] Young 2013, 478; צָבָא would be a collective "group noun" in this analysis.

[105] Cf. TLOT, 1041–42.

[106] King and Stager 2001, 240.

[107] King and Stager 2001, 241.

[108] Niccacci 2006, 257–58.

[109] HALOT.

[110] DCH.

[111] NETS.

[112] Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible, 5:600.

[113] Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible, 5:600–601.

[114] Craigie 2004, 330; NET Notes; so REB, NJB.

[115] DCH, 8:515.

[116] Niccacci 2006, 257–58.

[117] King and Stager 2001, 114.

[118] King and Stager 2001, 113.

[119] NIDOTTE, 1:1144.

[120] NIDOTTE, 1:1145.

[121] Niccacci 2006, 257–58.

[122] Arnold and Choi 2018, §4.1.5j; BHRG §39.6.3d.

[123] So Jenni 1992, 152.

[124] So deClaisse-Walford, et al 2014, 411; Goldingay 2007, 36.

[125] DCH, 5:217; 7:397.

[126] So HALOT, 1176.

[127] King and Stager 2001, 194.

[128] King and Stager 2001, 194.

[129] NIDOTTE, 2:280–81.

[130] Goldingay 2007, 44.

[131] Olyan 1996, 204.

[132] HALOT.

[133] NIDOTTE, 2:1134.

[134] NIDOTTE, 2:1135.

[135] NIDOTTE, 3:53.

[136] So Goldingay 2007, 2:36.

[137] Barbiero and Pavan 2012, 599.

[138] Barbiero and Pavan 2012, 603–604.

[139] Schaefer 2001, 112.

[140] TLOT, 206.

[141] Olyan 1996, 204.

[142] So Goldingay 2007, 44.

[143] Putnam 2002, §2.3.1.

[144] Putnam 2002, §§1.8.1c[1]; 1.8.3b.

[145] Baethgen 1904, 21.

[146] Putnam 2002, §2.3.1.

[147] Putnam 2002, §§1.8.1c[1]; 1.8.3b.

[148] Cf. Ps 8:3; NIDOTTE, 3:156.

[149] Arnold and Choi 2018, 4.1.14c.

[150] BHRG, §39.15.

[151] Lugt 2010, 25.

[152] van der Lugt 2010, 25.

[153] JM §125ba; see also Pss 36.12; 119.41, 77; Prov. 28.22; Job 22.21.

[154] Arnold and Choi 2018, §5.2.12.

[155] NIDOTTE, 4:104.

[156] NIDOTTE, 4:104.

[157] JM §160q.

[158] Pss 4:5; 10:17; 22:27; 28:3; 31:25; 33:15, 21; 35:25; 37:15; 44:19; 48:14; 62:9; 69:33; 74:8; 78:18, 37; 81:13; 84:6; 95:8; 105:25; 107:12; 119:70.

[159] Davidson 1902, 19.

[160] SDBH.

[161] BHRG §21.2.2.

[162] JM §150g.

[163] SDBH.

[164] Locatell 2017, 270.

[165] Locatell 2017, 274.

[166] Locatell 2017, 258.

[167] NETS.

[168] NETS.

[169] Claisse-Walford, et al 2014, 411n11; cf. DCH.

[170] NIDOTTE, 4:310.

[171] NIDOTTE, 4:311.

[172] Keel 1997, 76.

[173] IBHS §33.2.1d.

[174] GKC §119q.

[175] BHRG, §39.6.3a.

[176] So DCH, 4:442.

[177] NIDOTTE, 3:807.

[178] TWOT, 767.

[179] Dahood 1966, 147; hence NJB's "shadow dark as death."

[180] NIDOTTE, 3:807.

[181] GKC, §159m.

[182] SDBH.

[183] GKC, §159.ff.

[184] NIDOTTE, 4:104.

[185] NIDOTTE, 4:104.

[186] SDBH.

[187] BHRG §21.2.2.

[188] GKC, §159n.

[189] Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 24.

[190] TWOT, 318.

[191] Locatell 2017, 270.

[192] Locatell 2017, 274.

[193] Locatell 2017, 258.

[194] Khan and van der Merwe 2020, 365.

[195] BHRG §39.20.3c.

[196] BHRG §39.20.4.

[197] IBHS, §11.2.13e.

[198] HALOT.

[199] King and Stager 2001, 114.

[200] King and Stager 2001, 113.

[201] GKC §128q.

[202] Lugt 2006, 79.

[203] JM, §113d.

[204] Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 799.

[205] Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 800.

[206] GKC, §135q.

[207] Miller 2010, 361.

[208] DCH.

[209] Thomas 1956, 108.

[210] Cf. NIDOTTE, 3:139–40.

[211] Cf. Tsumura 2017, 193.

[212] Tsumura 2017, 193.

[213] DCH.

[214] JM, §113d.

[215] Locatell 2017, 274.

[216] Locatell 2017, 274.

[217] DCH.

[218] So DCH.

[219] So HALOT.

[220] NIDOTTE, 4:98.

[221] Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 87.

[222] JM §93j.

[223] IBHS §10.2.2b.

[224] NIDOTTE, 3:378.

[225] TWOT, 716.

[226] TWOT, 717.

[227] NIDOTTE, 3:578.

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Psalm 44 Verse-by-Verse

Superscription (v. 1)

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

Boasting in God (vv. 2–9)

v. 2

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

v. 3

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

v. 4

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

v. 5

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

v. 6

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

v. 7

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

v. 8

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

v. 9

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

Rejected by God (vv. 10–17)

v. 10

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

v. 11

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

v. 12

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

v. 13

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

v. 14

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

v. 15

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

vv. 16–17

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

Faithful to God (vv. 18–23)

v. 18

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

v. 19

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes

v. 20

Expanded Paraphrase

Grammatical Diagram

Notes