Psalm 2 Verse-by-Verse

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Welcome to the Verse-by-Verse Notes for Psalm 2!

The Verse-by-Verse Notes present scholarly, exegetical materials (from all layers of analysis) in a verse-by-verse format. They often present alternative interpretive options and justification for a preferred interpretation. The Verse-by-Verse Notes are aimed at consultant-level users.

The discussion of each verse of this psalm includes the following items.

1. A link to the part of the overview video where the verse in question is discussed.
2. The verse in Hebrew and English.
3. An expanded paraphrase of the verse.
4. A grammatical diagram of the verse, which includes glosses for each word and phrase.
5. A series of notes on the verse, which contain information pertaining to the interpretation of the psalm (e.g., meaning of words and phrases, poetic features, difficult grammatical constructions, etc.).

Introduction

Poetic Structure

Psalm 2 has four sections: vv. 1-3; vv. 4-6; vv. 7-9; vv. 10-12. This division is widely accepted. As van der Lugt notes, "The division is so obvious that there is no discussion among scholars about this fact."

The main reasons for the four-fold division are as follows:

• Content, discourse topic, illocution. The first section describes the futile rebellion of the earthly nations and their rulers (vv. 1-3); the second section describes the response of YHWH, the Lord enthroned in heaven (vv. 4-6); the third section tells about the decree (vv. 7-9); and the fourth section warns and exhorts the earthly kings (vv. 10-12). The topic of each section is mentioned in the first line of that section (bolded in the visual above).
• Similar endings. Each of the first three sections ends with quoted speech (red in the visual above). The two-line speech of the nations concludes the first section (v. 3); YHWH's two-line speech in response to the nations concludes the second section (v. 6); and YHWH's seven-clause decree concludes (and constitutes the bulk of) the third section (vv. 7-9). The fact that there is no direct speech concluding the final section might be a poetic feature: how will the nations respond?
• Balance. Each section is three verses long.

These four sections are connected in multiple ways, such that multiple patterns emerge. For example,

• ABBA.
  • A...A: There are clear connections between the first and last sections (vv. 1-3 // vv. 10-12), indicating an ABBA chiastic structure.
    • Sections 1 and 4 are both about the earthly kings, and both sections use the words "kings" and "earth" (v. 2, v. 10).
    • There is a clear thematic reversal: vv. 1-3 describe the nations' rebellion against YHWH and against his anointed, and vv. 10-12 summon the nations to submit to YHWH and his anointed.
    • Numerous sound correspondences connect the speech of the kings in v. 3 with the warning to the kings in v. 10.
  • BB: There is also continuity between the middle sections (vv. 4-6 // vv. 7-9). Both sections present YHWH's speaking to legitimate his king's right to rule.
  • Of the various patterns identified here, this pattern (ABBA) brings out the inner logic of the psalm most powerfully in the way it highlights the reversal of the earthly kings in vv. 1-3, 10-12

• AABB. In addition to the chiastic structure, there are ways in which the psalm divides into two halves (vv. 1-6; vv. 7-12).
  • AA: Some features bind together vv. 1-6.
    • The first two sections (vv. 1-3; vv. 4-6) are bound together by their similar endings (vv. 3, 6). Both sections end with quoted speech that is two lines long and not introduced by any quotative frame. Furthermore, the waw beginning the speech in v. 6 explicitly connects this speech to the speech in v. 3.
    • The similarity between v. 2c and v. 6c is striking. Both lines begin with the preposition עַל and continue the clause of the previous line: "...against (עַל) YHWH and against (עַל) his anointed one" (v. 2c) // "...on (עַל) Zion, my holy mountain" (v. 6b).
    • The repetition of the sound o and, specifically, the suffix מוֹ at the ends of lines (vv. 3a, 3b, 4b, 5b).
  • BB: Some features bind together vv. 7-12.
    • Both sections mention the "son" (vv. 7b [בן], 12a [בר]).
    • Both sections describe the potential destruction of the nations and their kings (vv. 9, 12).

• ABAB. There are also correspondences between the first and third sections and between the second and fourth sections. E.g.,
  • A...A: "nations" (vv. 1a, 8a), "earth" (vv. 2a, 8b), מִן "from" (vv. 3b, 8a)
  • B...B: "his anger" (vv. 5a, 12b)

Participants

Psalm 2 is especially dramatic, almost like a modern-day play. The following main characters feature in the drama:

• YHWH is the "Lord" (v. 4) over all the earth, "the one enthroned in the heavens" (v. 4a) as the highest king.
• YHWH, the heavenly king, does not rule over the nations directly. Rather, his rule is mediated by his anointed one (v. 2c), the king whom he placed as his image on Mt. Zion (v. 6), his only son and heir (vv. 7-9).
• The nations rightfully belong to the king, who rules over them like an emperor rules over the various domains in his empire. When Psalm 2 begins, however, the nations are "in an uproar" (v.1a), trying to throw off the shackles of YHWH and his anointed one (v. 3). Specifically, the earthly kings who rule the nations (vv. 2, 10) want to gain independence from YHWH and his king. Instead of being part of the king's empire and submitting to his rule, they want to govern themselves.

The following visual summarizes the relationships among these three characters:

Speakers and Speech acts

Each of the above participants has a speaking part.

• In v. 3, the nations speak.
• In v. 6, YHWH speaks.
• In vv. 7-9, the king speaks and quotes YHWH's decree (vv. 7b-9).
• The speaker of vv. 1-3, 10-12 appears to be an anonymous psalmist/poet, though it is possible that the king is the speaker in these verses as well.

The embedded speeches occur at seams in the poetic structure. Each of the first three sections (vv. 1-3; vv. 4-6; vv. 7-9) end with an embedded speech (see Poetic Structure). The only section that does not have direct speech is the final section (vv. 10-12). The pattern of each section concluding with a speech leads us to expect a speech at the end of the fourth section. Instead, there is no speech, and the fourth section concludes with an ultimatum to the earthly kings. We are left wondering what the nations will say in response. Will they accept the king's dominion and join those who "take refuge in him" (v. 12c), or will they continue their rebellion and perish in their way (v. 12b)?

The following visual shows our speech-act summary of Ps 2. It shows not only who is speaking at any given point in the psalm, but it also uses labels to summarize what the speaker is doing with their words.

Rebellion (vv. 1-3)

The "curtain" of this psalm opens amidst a world-wide rebellion. As the psalm begins, the following two events are assumed to have taken place:

In the ancient world, lesser kings (vassals) frequently rebelled against greater rulers (suzerains), especially when the greater kingdom experienced a change in kingship. In the Neo-Assyrian period (early 10th–7th centuries BC), accounts of withstanding a rebellion were a regular part of inscriptions and palace decorations which served to confirm the divine appointment of a king.

In this opening section (vv. 1-3), the psalmist not only describes the rebellion, but he also expresses contempt towards the rebels.

v. 1

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-clear
1a	לָ֭מָּה רָגְשׁ֣וּ גוֹיִ֑ם	Why are nations in an uproar,
1b	וּ֝לְאֻמִּ֗ים יֶהְגּוּ־רִֽיק׃	and [why] do peoples plot emptiness?

Expanded Paraphrase

YHWH and his anointed king rule over the nations and their rulers. But the nations and their rulers want freedom and independence from the imperial rule of YHWH and his anointed one, and so they are attempting to rebel. But there is no point! They will certainly be defeated. Why do they even bother? Why are nations in an uproar, like an agitated crowd or like a turbulent sea, and [why] do peoples make plots that result only in emptiness?

Grammatical Diagram

Glosses Phrase Ellipses Full Screen

Notes

• The psalm opens with the interrogative adverb, why...? (לָמָּה). The question is rhetorical. The psalmist is not seeking information but is expressing his contempt for the nations, that they would engage in something so futile, so foolish and destined for failure. The interrogative "why" is elided in the second clause of v. 1. See, for example, the NLT: "Why are the nations so angry? Why do they waste their time with futile plans?" It is probably implied in the clauses of v. 2 as well.
• The verbal conjugations in vv. 1-2 form a chiasm:

qatal (רָגְשׁוּ—"are in an uproar") (v. 1a)
  yiqtol (יֶהְגּוּ—"plot") (v. 1b)
  yiqtol (יִתְיַצְּבוּ—"take a stand") (v. 2a) 
qatal (נֽוֹסדוּ—"have conspired") (v. 2b). 

The meaningful difference between the qatal and yiqtol forms in this context is difficult to determine, however. Most translations smooth out the differences by translating all of the verbs using the same tense. Others have tried to determine some meaningful difference between the forms in these verses. According to Niccacci, the alternation of qatal-yiqtol in these verses, in addition to creating the chiasm, "is likely intended to add depth of field to the presentation of the event." He argues that the first clause of each verse presents foreground information, and the second clause of each verse presents background information—all within a past-tense time frame. He thus translates these verses as follows: "Why did the nations conspire, while the peoples were plotting in vain? <Why> were the kings of the earth setting themselves, while the rulers took counsel together..." Another way to express a meaningful difference between the qatals and yiqtols is to understand the yiqtols as modals: "Why are nations in an uproar, and [why] would peoples plot emptiness?" This interpretation would allow us explain the difference between the verbal forms in a way that respects the semantic contribution of each form (qatal as typically past/perfective/realis; yiqtol as typically future/imperfective/irrealis) and works well in the context. Yet another way to understand the difference that respects the verbal forms would be to read the qatals as describing what has happened and the yiqtols as describing what continues to happen in the speaker's present (cf. the yiqtol's in vv. 4-5).

• The first verb of the psalm are... in an uproar (רָגְשׁוּ) occurs only here in the Hebrew Bible, and so its meaning is unclear. There are two main options:

1. "assemble" (NJPS) >> "conspire" (NIV, NRSV; cf. CEV, GNT).
2. "rage" (KJV, ESV, CSB); also "are... angry" (NLT), "in turmoil" (REB), "in an uproar" (NASB).

The meaning "assemble" is based on an Aramaic cognate (רגשׁ aphel stem) that means "to gather together urgently." But the Aramaic verb only has this meaning in the aphel (= hiphil) stem. In the basic stem (= qal), the Aramaic verb means "to rage, be upset," and this is the more likely meaning of the word in Ps 2:1. Note that verbs for anger also occur in the last verse of Ps 2 ("or else he will become angry... his anger"), thus forming an inclusio. The word רגשׁ (hithpael, niphal, and qal) occurs with this sense in some later Hebrew texts. Interestingly, in some of these of these texts, the "raging" wicked are likened to the tumultuous sea, an image which we find elsewhere in the Psalter (see esp. Ps 46). This would be a fitting image for the nations in Ps 2 as well. The use of an Aramaic word at the beginning of the psalm might be a deliberate rhetorical device: the psalm deals with events of international significance, so it makes use of the international language of Aramaic.

• The word translated peoples (לְאֻמִּים) is "used especially in poetic texts." It might have been chosen for its sound—note how לְאֻמִּים sounds like לָמָּה in the previous line. The fronting of לְאֻמִּים (subject-predicate) creates a symmetrical pattern with the previous clause: predicate-subject // subject-predicate).
• The verb plot (יֶהְגּוּ) literally means "mutter," and here it has "the metonymic nuance 'devise, plan, plot' (see Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2)." In this context, the verb contributes further to the picture in the previous line of the nations as a noisy crowd, agitated like a tumultuous sea. Elsewhere, the verb can refer to a noisy inarticulate sound. In Job 37:2, the noun הֶגֶה refers to "rumbling" of thunder (ESV, NIV, NET). Thus, with the opening verbs רגשׁ and הגה, Ps 2:1 gives an image of the nations like a gathering storm (cf. Ps 46).
• The noun emptiness (רִיק) "may characterize their behavior as 'worthless, morally bankrupt' but more likely refers to the outcome of their plots (i.e., failure). As the rest of the psalm emphasizes, their rebellion will fail." Syntactically, רִיק could either be the direct object of the verb or a nominal adverb. Both interpretations are grammatically possible. Given the fact that the verb הגה typically takes an object (either a bare noun phrase or a bet prepositional phrase), the direct object interpretation is more likely.

v. 2

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-clear
2a	יִ֥תְיַצְּב֨וּ ׀ מַלְכֵי־אֶ֗רֶץ	[Why] do earthly kings take a stand
2b	וְרוֹזְנִ֥ים נֽוֹסְדוּ־יָ֑חַד׃	and [why] have rulers conspired together
2c	עַל־יְ֝הוָה וְעַל־מְשִׁיחֽוֹ׃	against YHWH and against his anointed one?

Expanded Paraphrase

[Why] would earthly kings who govern the nations as vassals to YHWH and his king take a stand against their suzerains, and [why] have rulers conspired together against YHWH and against his king whom he anointed as the one to rule his people?

Grammatical Diagram

Glosses Phrase Ellipses Full Screen

SimpleGrammar
DiscourseUnit [v. 2]
    Fragment
      ClauseCluster
        Clause
          Subject
            ConstructChain <gloss="earthly kings">
              noun: מַלְכֵי kings
              noun: אֶרֶץ earth
          Predicate
            verb: יִתְיַצְּבוּ take a stand
            Adverbial
              adverb: לָמָּה why <status="elided">
            Adverbial <status="elided">
              Adverbial
                PrepositionalPhrase
                  Preposition
                    preposition: עַל against
                  Object
                    noun: יְהוָה YHWH
              Conjunction
                conjunction: וְ and
              Adverbial
                PrepositionalPhrase
                  Preposition
                    preposition: עַל against
                  Object
                    ConstructChain <gloss="his anointed one">
                      noun: מְשִׁיח anointed one
                      suffix-pronoun: וֹ him
        Conjunction
          conjunction: וְ and
        Clause
          Subject
            noun: רוֹזְנִים rulers
          Predicate
            verb: נוֹסְדוּ have gathered >> have conspired
            Adverbial
              adverb: לָמָּה why <status="elided">
            Adverbial
              adverb: יָחַד together
            Adverbial
              Adverbial
                PrepositionalPhrase
                  Preposition
                    preposition: עַל against
                  Object
                    noun: יְהוָה YHWH
              Conjunction
                conjunction: וְ and
              Adverbial
                PrepositionalPhrase
                  Preposition
                    preposition: עַל against
                  Object
                    ConstructChain <gloss="his anointed one">
                      noun: מְשִׁיח anointed
                      suffix-pronoun: וֹ him
    Fragment <status="alternative">
      particle: סֶלָה Selah <status="emendation"> 
  

Notes

• The verb take a stand (יִתְיַצְּבוּ) can mean to "take one’s stand (firmly)" and, by metaphorical extension, "to resist."
• The construct chain "kings of earth" (מַלְכֵי־אֶרֶץ) is a disparaging reference to the kings as earthly kings i.e., "earthly kings in contrast to the heavenly king (v. 4)."
• Rulers (רוֹזְנִים) is a poetic term for the "ruler of a nation or people." The word is fronted to create a symmetrical pattern with the previous clause (predicate-subject // subject-predicate).
• The same phrase conspire together against (הִוָּסֵד יַחַד עַל) occurs in Ps 31:14: "For I hear many whispering, 'Terror on every side!' They conspire against me (בְּהִוָּסְדָם יַחַד עָלַי) and plot to take my life" (Ps 31:14, NIV). In this passage, as in Ps 2, the verb probably means "get together" >> "conspire." According to HALOT, this verb probably derives from the root יסד II (a by-form of סוד; cf. the nοun סוֹד which can refer both to a "group, gathering" of people and, by metaphorical extension, to a "plot" or "scheme" known only by that group.
• The preposition against (עַל) is used in "the oppositional sense." The repetition of this preposition in v. 2c draws attention to the conflict. The prepositional phrases "against YHWH and against his anointed" (v. 2c) probably modify both of the preceding clauses (v. 2ab). Implicitly, it modifies the clauses in v. 1 as well.

v. 3

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-clear
3a	נְֽ֭נַתְּקָה אֶת־מֽוֹסְרוֹתֵ֑ימוֹ	"Let's tear off their bonds
3b	וְנַשְׁלִ֖יכָה מִמֶּ֣נּוּ עֲבֹתֵֽימוֹ׃׃	and throw their ropes away from us!"

Expanded Paraphrase

The rebels say, "Let's stop serving them! Let's tear off their bonds and throw their ropes away from us! Let's achieve independence!"

Grammatical Diagram

Glosses Phrase Ellipses Full Screen

SimpleGrammar
DiscourseUnit [v. 3]
    Fragment
      ClauseCluster
        Clause
          Predicate
            verb: נְנַתְּקָה let's tear off
            Object
              particle: אֶת
              Nominal
                ConstructChain <gloss="their bonds">
                  noun: מוֹסְרוֹתֵי bonds
                  suffix-pronoun: מוֹ them
        Conjunction
          conjunction: וְ and
        Clause
          Predicate
            verb: נַשְׁלִיכָה let's throw
            Adverbial
              PrepositionalPhrase
                Preposition
                  preposition: מִמֶּ away from
                Object
                  suffix-pronoun: נּוּ us
            Object
              ConstructChain <gloss="their ropes">
                noun: עֲבֹתֵי ropes
                suffix-pronoun: מוֹ them 
  

Notes

• Let's tear off... throw...! "In first-person plural [cohortatives], the speakers usually seek to instigate or encourage each other to some action."

Response (vv. 4-6)

In vv. 4-6, the scene shifts from "earth" (v. 2) to "heaven" (v. 4), and the new main character on the stage is "the one enthroned in the heavens" (v. 4a).

The geographic (or cosmographic) movement of the psalm is significant. It begins by describing a rebellion on "earth" (vv. 1-3), and then moves to describe the response to the one enthroned in "heaven" (vv. 4-6). The heavenly king then introduces his anointed king, whom he has placed on his "holy mountain" (v. 6)—the place where heaven and earth meet and where the rule of the heavenly king comes to bear on the rule of the earthly king. After the king on the mountain speaks (vv. 7-9), the psalm moves back down to the "earth" (vv. 10-12) where the earthly kings are summoned to submit to heaven's rule.

v. 4

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-clear
4a	יוֹשֵׁ֣ב בַּשָּׁמַ֣יִם יִשְׂחָ֑ק	The one enthroned in the heavens laughs.
4b	אֲ֝דֹנָ֗י יִלְעַג־לָֽמוֹ׃	The Lord mocks them.

Expanded Paraphrase

The one enthroned in the heavens, far above the earthly kings, is not threatened by their rebellion. Instead, he laughs at them, an expression of mockery and disdain. The all-powerful Lord whom they ought to be serving mocks them.

Grammatical Diagram

Glosses Phrase Ellipses Full Screen

SimpleGrammar
DiscourseUnit [v. 4]
    Fragment
      Clause
        Subject
          Nominal
          Clause
            Predicate
              verb-participle: יוֹשֵׁב one who sits >> one enthroned
              Adverbial
                PrepositionalPhrase
                  Preposition
                    preposition: בַּ in
                  Object
                    article: ה the <status="elided">
                    noun: שָּׁמַיִם heavens
        Predicate
          verb: יִשְׂחָק laughs
          Adverbial <status="elided">
            PrepositionalPhrase
              Preposition
                preposition: לָ at
              Object
                suffix-pronoun: מוֹ them
    Fragment 
      Clause
        Subject
          noun: אֲדֹנָי the Lord
        Subject <status="alternative">
          noun: יְהוָה YHWH <status="alternative emendation">
        Predicate
          verb: יִלְעַג mocks
          Adverbial
            PrepositionalPhrase <gloss="them">
              Preposition
                preposition: לָ at
              Object
                suffix-pronoun: מוֹ them 
  

Notes

• The subject of v. 4a, the one enthroned in the heavens (יוֹשֵׁב בַּשָּׁמַיִם) is fronted for topic activation. Even though YHWH was already mentioned in v. 2 (עַל־יְהוָה), he is introduced here for the first time as the agent of a clause, and so the phrase referring to him is fronted for ease of processing.
• The verb translated enthroned (יוֹשֵׁב) is, literally, "sit," and it can refer figuratively to "reigning" (i.e., sitting on a throne). The verb probably has this meaning in this context, where YHWH "the one who reigns in heaven" is contrasted with the "kings of earth" (v. 2).
• The yiqtol verbs in vv. 4-5 (laughs...mocks) narrate a sequence of events: first YHWH laughs/mocks (v. 4) and then (אָז) he speaks to them (v. 5a) so that they are terrified (v. 5b). This sequentiality is strengthened by the presence of אָז (v. 5a). The use of yiqtol verbal forms (instead of qatal and wayyiqtol) has the effect of making it more like a performance; it makes it feel as though the events are happening right before the speaker's eyes.
• The verb laughs (יִשְׂחָק) refers to an "action by which humans or deities express their lack of respect for (other) humans, often accompanied by laughter."
• The verb mocks (יִלְעַג) is a poetic synonym of "laughs" (יִשְׂחָק). It occurs predominantly in poetry and refers to an "action by which humans or deities express their disdain of others with words, sounds and/or gestures."
• The prepositional phrase them (לָמוֹ) appears to modify not only the verb in the b-line ("mock"), but the verb in the a-line as well ("laugh"). The lamed preposition indicates the entity negatively affected by the action, the object of scorn and mockery.
• The 3mp מוֹ suffix used throughout vv. 4-5 is not the normal Hebrew 3mp suffix; it is rare and "poetic": "...The Lord mocks them (לָמוֹ). Then he speaks to them (מוֹ-) in his anger and terrifies them (מוֹ-) in his wrath."

v. 5

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-clear
5a	אָ֤ז יְדַבֵּ֣ר אֵלֵ֣ימוֹ בְאַפּ֑וֹ	Then he speaks to them in his anger
5b	וּֽבַחֲרוֹנ֥וֹ יְבַהֲלֵֽמוֹ׃	and terrifies them in his wrath.

Expanded Paraphrase

Then he speaks to them in his anger and terrifies them in his wrath.

Grammatical Diagram

Glosses Phrase Ellipses Full Screen

SimpleGrammar
DiscourseUnit [v. 5]
    Fragment
      particle: אָז then
    Fragment
      ClauseCluster
        Clause
          Predicate
            verb: יְדַבֵּר he speaks
            Adverbial
              PrepositionalPhrase
                Preposition
                  preposition: אֵלֵי to
                Object
                  suffix-pronoun: מוֹ them
            Adverbial
              PrepositionalPhrase
                Preposition
                  preposition: בְ in
                Object
                  ConstructChain <gloss="his anger">
                    noun: אַפּ anger
                    suffix-pronoun: וֹ him
        Conjunction
          conjunction: וּ and
        Clause
          Predicate
            verb: יְבַהֲלֵ terrifies
            Object
              suffix-pronoun: מוֹ them
            Adverbial
              PrepositionalPhrase
                Preposition
                  preposition: בַ in
                Object
                  ConstructChain <gloss="his wrath">
                    noun: חֲרוֹנ wrath
                    suffix-pronoun: וֹ him 
  

Notes

• The function of the adverb then (אָז) is not entirely clear. It could be a conjunctive adverb used to connect a sequence of events: "(first) he laughs and mocks; then he speaks...". Alternatively, it could be an adverb of time, referring to the time of the rebellion described in vv. 1-3: "at that time (when they were rebelling), he speaks to them..." It might also connect somehow to the discourse marker "and now" (וְעַתָּה) in v. 10 (cf. e.g., Josh 14:11). We have preferred the first of these options. The effect of using אָז in v. 5 together with yiqtol verbs in vv. 4-5 is to create a dramatic narrative with suspense.
• The bet prepositions in the phrase in his anger... and in his wrath (בְאַפּוֹ...וּֽבַחֲרוֹנוֹ) indicate the mode of the actions. YHWH speaks to the nations in a state of anger/wrath. Both words refer to "extreme displeasure" and are associated with fire. The second term, wrath (חָרוֹן) might "have a specialized use designating the legitimate rage of a suzerain against a disobedient vassal.'"
• The phrase "in his wrath" is fronted to create a symmetrical pattern with the previous line: verb-prepositional phrase // prepositional phrase-verb.

v. 6

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-clear
6a	וַ֭אֲנִי נָסַ֣כְתִּי מַלְכִּ֑י	"But I have poured out my king
6b	עַל־צִ֝יּ֗וֹן הַר־קָדְשִֽׁי׃	on Zion, my holy mountain."

Expanded Paraphrase

He says in response to their words (v. 3): "You can plot all you like, but it will not work. I have poured out my king as my image, just as a craftsman pours liquid metal into a mold to make an image, and I have placed him on Zion, the city of David, my holy mountain, the place where heaven and earth meet, to represent my heavenly rule on the earth. Nothing that you do can alter this reality."

Grammatical Diagram

Glosses Phrase Ellipses Full Screen

SimpleGrammar
DiscourseUnit [v. 6]
    Fragment
      Conjunction
        conjunction: וַ but
    Fragment
      Clause
        Subject
          noun: אֲנִי I
        Predicate
          verb: נָסַכְתִּי have poured out
          Object
            ConstructChain <gloss="my king">
              noun: מַלְכִּ king
              suffix-pronoun: י me
          Adverbial
            PrepositionalPhrase
              Preposition
                preposition: עַל on
              Object
                Apposition
                  noun: צִיּוֹן Zion
                  ConstructChain <gloss="my holy mountain">
                    noun: הַר mountain
                    ConstructChain
                      noun: קָדְשִׁ holiness
                      suffix-pronoun: י me 
  

Notes

• The but (וַ) at the beginning of v. 6 connects and contrasts YHWH's response to the nations' speech in v. 3. "The function of this type of speech-initial וְ is to mark a dispreferred response."
• The pronoun I (אֲנִי) is fronted for a contrastive topic shift: "You nations say that you want to rebel (v. 3)... But as for me... (v. 6)."
• The meaning of the verb translated I have poured out (נָסַכְתִּי) has long been debated. See The Meaning of נָסַכְתִּי in Ps 2:6 for in depth discussion of the issue. In short, we understand the verb to mean "I have poured" in the sense of "I have poured out my king as my image, just as a craftsman pours liquid metal into a mold to make an image." This is a well-attested meaning of the Hebrew verb נסך, and it fits the context well. Thus, Ps 2:6 depicts the king as God's image (cf. Gen 1:26), a metaphor that goes hand in hand with the metaphor of sonship in the following verse (cf. Gen 5:3). The following chart further explores the "image" metaphor in v. 6:

• The phrase my king (מַלְכִּי) refers to "the king who is mine, whom I made to be king."
• The phrase on... my holy mountain (עַל... הַר־קָדְשִׁי) is, literally, "on my mountain of holiness," i.e., the mountain that is devoted to me as holy. A mountain is a place where heaven and earth meet, and thus a place where people experience God's presence (see e.g., Gen 22; Exod 3:1-2; 19; cf. Matt 17:1-8). In the flow Ps 2, the mountain (v. 6) is the place where the heavenly king's rule (cf. v. 4a) comes to bear upon the earthly kings (cf. vv. 2a, 10b).
• The name of the mountain is Zion, "that part of Jerusalem on which the temple was built, also known as a fortress and stronghold, city of David, YHWH's dwelling place." According to Ps 132, "The Lord has chosen Zion; he has desired it for his dwelling place: 'This is my resting place forever; here I will dwell, for I have desired it... There I will make a horn to sprout for David; I have prepared a lamp for my anointed'" (Ps 132:13-14, 17, ESV).

Decree (vv. 7-9)

In vv. 7-9, the king himself takes the stage (see Speakers and Speech acts above) and tells about YHWH's decree. The decree itself is based on YHWH's covenant with David (see 2 Sam 7; Ps 89). It consists of seven clauses:

1. "You are my son.
2. I hereby father you today.
3. Ask me,
4. and I will make nations your inheritance
5. and [I will make] the ends of the earth your property.
6. You will crush them with an iron scepter.
7. You will smash them like clay pottery."

v. 7

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-clear
7a	אֲסַפְּרָ֗ה אֶֽ֫ל חֹ֥ק	I will tell about the decree;
7b	יְֽהוָ֗ה אָמַ֘ר אֵלַ֥י בְּנִ֥י אַ֑תָּה	YHWH said to me, "You are my son.
7c	אֲ֝נִ֗י הַיּ֥וֹם יְלִדְתִּֽיךָ׃	I hereby father you today.

Expanded Paraphrase

Listen up, you rebellious nations! I, the king whom YHWH anointed and cast as his image, will tell about the covenant YHWH made with my father, David, which he has confirmed to me as a decree, a decree that you must heed; YHWH said to me on the day of my enthronement, "You are my son. You resemble me in terms of character, you represent my rule, and you will always receive my paternal care. With this speech, I hereby father you today, on the day of your enthronement, causing you to be born into a royal existence, thus fulfilling what I promised your father, David, when I told him, 'I will raise up your offspring after you... and I will establish his kingdom... I will become his father, and he will become my son' (2 Sam 7:12-14).

Grammatical Diagram

Glosses Phrase Ellipses Full Screen

SimpleGrammar
DiscourseUnit [v. 7]
    Fragment
      Clause
        Predicate
          verb: אֲסַפְּרָה I will tell
          Adverbial
            PrepositionalPhrase
              Preposition
                preposition: אֶל about
              Object
                noun: חֹק decree
              Object
                ConstructChain <status="alternative">
                  noun: חֹק decree
                  noun: יְהוָה YHWH
    Fragment
      Clause
        Subject
          noun: יְהוָה YHWH
        Predicate
          verb: אָמַר said
          Adverbial
            PrepositionalPhrase
              Preposition
                preposition: אֵלַ to
              Object
                suffix-pronoun: י me
    Fragment
      Clause
        Subject
          noun: אַתָּה you
        Predicate
          verb: are
          Complement
            ConstructChain <gloss="my son">
              noun: בְּנִ son
              suffix-pronoun: י me 
    Fragment
      Clause
        Subject
          noun: אֲנִי I
        Predicate
          verb: יְלִדְתִּי hereby father
          Object
            suffix-pronoun: ךָ you
          Adverbial <gloss="today">
            article: הַ the
            noun: יּוֹם day 
  

Notes

• The verb tell (ספֵּר) refers to an "action by which humans communicate verbally to others about an event or situation, with focus on the contents rather than on the speech act." The he suffix on the verb אֲסַפְּרָה has been traditionally identified as the marker for the cohortative, which is why some translations say "Let me announce..." (ISV, cf. ELB) instead of "I will announce" (so most translations). But it is more likely that the he suffix is not a marker for the cohortative, but a morpheme that expresses "an increasingly conventionalized reflexive-benefactive sense." Interestingly, the he suffix appears in three places in this psalm, each time in the speech of a different speaker (vv. 3, 7, 8).
• The preposition about (אֶל) when modifying the verb of speaking ספּר indicates the topic of the discourse: "tell of the decree" (ESV, NJPS) or "tell about the decree."
• The word decree (חֹק) here refers to a "god-given" "prescription" or "rule." It may be that here "the emphasis is on the right and privilege that it brings about, rather than upon the call for its observance and obedience," Specifically, in this context, "the ḥōq of Yahweh to the king appears to be the [covenantal] promise of sonship pronounced at the king’s enthronement," the “personal covenant document, renewing God’s covenant commitment to the dynasty of David.” On the close relationship between "covenant" and "decree," see e.g., Ps 105:9-11 (ESV): "He remembers his covenant forever, the word that he commanded, for a thousand generations, the covenant that he made with Abraham, his sworn promise to Isaac, which he confirmed to Jacob as a statute, to Israel as an everlasting covenant, saying, 'To you I will give the land of Canaan as your portion for an inheritance.'" As in Ps 105, so here in Ps 2: the covenant with David is "confirmed as a statue (חֹק)" to one of David's descendants.
• Depending on how one divides the lines in v. 7ab, YHWH might be either the final noun of a construct chain ("...decree of YHWH. He said..." or the subject of the following clause ("...decree. YHWH said..."), or, if "YHWH" is read twice, both the final noun of a construct chain and the subject of the next clause ("...decree of YHWH. YHWH said...". Most of the modern translations consulted group "YHWH" with v. 7a: "I will proclaim the LORD’s decree: He said to me" (NIV, cf. NRSV, NLT, CSB, CEV, GNT, REB, NET, LUT, HFA, NGÜ, ELB, EÜ, GNB, ZÜR). Some of them, however, group "YHWH" with the b-line: "I will tell of the decree: The LORD said to me" (ESV, cf. NJPS). A decision is difficult. In the absence of any compelling evidence one way or another, we have defaulted to following the reading tradition of the Masoretes and grouping "YHWH" with the b-line.
• YHWH had made a covenant with David and his descendants (2 Sam 7:12-16; cf. Ps 89:4-5), saying, "I will raise up your offspring after you... and I will establish his kingdom... I will be his father, and he will be my son" (2 Sam 7:12-14). The declaration You are my son (בְּנִי אַתָּה) in Ps 2:7 alludes to this promise. The description of the king as God’s son is an idea attested throughout the Ancient Near Eastern world. “The meaning may have differed in Egypt, Canaan, and Mesopotamia, but the common denominator is the idea that the king represents the character of the god in some way to the people" (Gentry 2012, 397). The following imagery chart further explores this image.

• Modern English translations agree that the qatal verb יְלִדְתִּֽיךָ refers to an event which, from the perspective of the speaker (YHWH), is past and has continuing relevance in the present: "I have fathered you today." But the adverbial today probably indicates that this is a performative speech act (cf. Deut 8:19; 30:18; Jer 40:4): I hereby father you. With performative qatal, "the fact of uttering a given proposition with the verb in the qatal triggers a new state in the speaker’s reality." The meaning would be similar to what we find in 2 Kgs 9:3—"Thus says the LORD, I anoint you (מְשַׁחְתִּיךָֽ) king over Israel" (ESV, cf. NIV, NLT).
• The double-fronting of I...today (אֲנִי הַיּוֹם) most naturally reads as topic shifting אֲנִי + focal הַיּוֹם. Perhaps הַיּוֹם is fronted for intensive focus: "this very day..."

v. 8

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-clear
8a	שְׁאַ֤ל מִמֶּ֗נִּי וְאֶתְּנָ֣ה ג֭וֹיִם נַחֲלָתֶ֑ךָ	Ask me, and I will make nations your inheritance
8b	וַ֝אֲחֻזָּתְךָ֗ אַפְסֵי־אָֽרֶץ׃	and the ends of the earth your property.

Expanded Paraphrase

Ask me, my son, for your inheritance, and I will make nations your inheritance and the ends of the earth your property. For the whole world is mine, and you, my only son, will inherit it all.

Grammatical Diagram

Glosses Phrase Ellipses Full Screen

SimpleGrammar
DiscourseUnit [v. 8]    
    Fragment
      ClauseCluster
        Clause
          Predicate
            verb: שְׁאַל ask
            Adverbial
              PrepositionalPhrase
                Preposition
                  preposition: מִמֶּ of
                Object
                  suffix-pronoun: נִּי me
        Conjunction
          conjunction: וְ and
        Clause
          Predicate
            verb: אֶתְּנָה I will make
            Object
              noun: גוֹיִם nations
            Complement
              Nominal
                ConstructChain <gloss="your inheritance">
                  noun: נַחֲלָתֶ inheritance
                  suffix-pronoun: ךָ you
        Conjunction
          conjunction: וַ and
        Clause
          Predicate
            verb: אֶתְּנָה I will make <status="elided">
            Object
              Nominal
                ConstructChain
                  noun: אַפְסֵי ends
                  noun: אָרֶץ earth
            Complement
              ConstructChain <gloss="your property">
                noun: אֲחֻזָּתְ property
                suffix-pronoun: ךָ you 
  

Notes

• The language of inheritance in this verse continues the sonship imagery of the previous verse. Sons inherit their fathers' property (cf. Num 27:7-11; 1 Kgs 21:3; Job 42:15). Because the whole world is YHWH's property (cf. Ps 24:1), YHWH's son will inherit the whole world.
• The weyiqtol and I will make (וְאֶתְּנָה) form indicates result in the context: "Ask me, and (as a result) I will make..."
• The phrase the ends of the earth (אַפְסֵי־אָרֶץ) often refers to people (e.g., Pss 22:28; 67:8; 98:3), but here with the word property (אֲחֻזָּה) (specifically, "landed property") it probably refers to land (cf. Ps 72:8). Thus, the king will inherit both people (v. 8a) and land (v. 8b).
• The word order in v. 8b—אֲחֻזָּתְךָ֗ אַפְסֵי־אָֽרֶץ—is inverted to form a symmetrical pattern with the previous clause: (a) nations (b) your inheritance // (b) your property (a) the ends of the earth.

v. 9

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-clear
9a	תְּ֭רֹעֵם בְּשֵׁ֣בֶט בַּרְזֶ֑ל	You will crush them with an iron scepter.
9b	כִּכְלִ֖י יוֹצֵ֣ר תְּנַפְּצֵֽם׃	You will smash them like clay pottery."

Expanded Paraphrase

If they try to rebel against your rule, I will be with you to strengthen you, and you will crush them with an iron scepter and smash them like fragile clay pottery that, once it is smashed, cannot be put back together."

Grammatical Diagram

Glosses Phrase Ellipses Full Screen

SimpleGrammar
DiscourseUnit [v. 9]
    Fragment
        Clause
          Predicate
            verb: תְּרֹעֵ you will crush
            verb: תִּרְעֵ you will shepherd <status="alternative revocalization">
            Object
              suffix-pronoun: ם them
            Adverbial
              PrepositionalPhrase
                Preposition
                  preposition: בְּ with
                Object
                  ConstructChain <gloss="an iron scepter">
                    noun: שֵׁבֶט scepter
                    noun: בַּרְזֶל iron
    Fragment
        Clause
          Predicate
            verb: תְּנַפְּצֵ you will smash
            Object
              suffix-pronoun: ם them
            Adverbial
              PrepositionalPhrase
                Preposition
                  preposition: כִּ like
                Object
                  ConstructChain <gloss="clay pottery">
                    noun: כְלִי vessel
                    verb-participle: יוֹצֵר potter 
  

Notes

• According to the Masoretic Text, the first word of v. 9 is you will crush (תְּרֹעֵם). The Septuagint, by contrast, says "you will shepherd them” (ποιμανεῖς αὐτούς). This reading, quoted in the Greek text of the NT in Rev. 2:27, 12:5, and 19:15, assumes a different vocalization of the consonantal Hebrew text (תִּרְעֵם instead of תְּרֹעֵם) and understands the verb as רָעָה ("to shepherd") rather than רָעַע ("to break"). But the presence of the verb "smash" (תְּנַפְּצֵם) in the parallel line strongly favors the MT vocalization. Goldingay proposes a deliberate rhetorical ambiguity here, namely, that this line "lays alternative possibilities before the nations—either firm shepherding or devastating destruction."
• The "scepter of iron" (שֵׁבֶט בַּרְזֶל) is an iron scepter (so CSB), i.e., a scepter made of iron. It is a symbol of the king's unbreakable authority, iron being "associated with strength and permanence"
• In contrast to the king's strong iron scepter, the nations are depicted as "a vessel of a potter" (כִּכְלִי יוֹצֵר), i.e., clay pottery (so NIV, NLT, GNT), which is very fragile and, once broken, virtually impossible to restore. The following imagery chart explores this image:

• The phrase "clay pottery" (כִּכְלִי יוֹצֵר) is fronted to create a symmetrical pattern with the previous line: (a) you will crush them (b) with an iron scepter // (b) like clay pottery (a) you will smash them. The pattern reinforces the contrast between the strong iron and the fragile clay.

Ultimatum (vv. 10-12)

In the first section of the psalm (vv. 1-3), the psalmist described the rebellion of the earthly kings, and he presented their rebellious words (v. 3). Now, in the last section of the psalm, he issues an ultimatum to the kings, calling them to reverse their behavior (vv. 10-12). The English word "ultimatum" nicely describes what the psalmist is doing in this final section: "a final offer or demand made by one party to another, especially in diplomatic negotiations, expressing or implying the threat of serious consequences or the breakoff of relations if the terms are not accepted."

The reversal in behavior that the psalmist calls is underscored poetically by the use of words in vv. 10-12 that sound like the words from the nations' speech in v. 3. In fact, every verb and noun from the nation's speech in v. 3 has some sonic echo in vv. 10-11.

• נַשְׁלִ֖יכָה (v. 3) // הַשְׂכִּ֑ילוּ (v. 10) - similar sounds (sh/s + l + k), also only two hiphil verbs in the psalm
• מֽוֹסְרוֹתֵ֑ימוֹ (v. 3) // הִ֝וָּסְר֗וּ (v. 10) - similar sounds (samek + r + o/u vowel)
• עֲבֹתֵֽימוֹ (v. 3) // עִבְד֣וּ (v. 10) - similar sounds (ayin + bet + dental [t/d])
• נְֽ֭נַתְּקָה (v. 3) // וְ֭עַתָּה (v. 10) - similar sounds (plosive tav, -ah ending. Note also that ע and ק might have sounded similar in biblical Hebrew; for example, ע sometimes had a g sound).

In other words, the address to the earthly kings in vv. 10-12 recycles the same sounds that the kings used in their own speech in v. 3. The echo of this previous rebellious speech underscores the reversal in behavior that the psalmist is calling for in vv. 10ff. He contrasts what they are doing and saying (v. 3) with what they should be doing and saying (vv. 10ff). Instead of "throwing off" the "ropes" of YHWH and his anointed (v. 3b), the kings should "wise up" and "serve" them (vv. 10-11a). Instead of "tearing off" "their bonds" (v. 3a) they should "now... accept discipline" (v. 10).

v. 10

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-clear
10a	וְ֭עַתָּה מְלָכִ֣ים הַשְׂכִּ֑ילוּ	And now, kings, wise up!
10b	הִ֝וָּסְר֗וּ שֹׁ֣פְטֵי אָֽרֶץ׃	Accept discipline, earthly rulers!

Expanded Paraphrase

And now, you foolish kings, having heard YHWH's decree, wise up! Accept YHWH's discipline and submit to him, earthly rulers!

Grammatical Diagram

Glosses Phrase Ellipses Full Screen

SimpleGrammar
DiscourseUnit [v. 10]
    Fragment
      particle: וְעַתָּה and now
    Fragment
      Vocative
        noun: מְלָכִים kings
      Clause
        Predicate
          verb: הַשְׂכִּילוּ wise up
    Fragment
      Vocative
        ConstructChain <gloss="earthly rulers">
          noun: שֹׁפְטֵי rulers
          noun: אָרֶץ earth
    Fragment
      Clause
        Predicate
          verb: הִוָּסְרוּ accept discipline 
  

Notes

• The combination of both and (וְ) and now (עַתָּה) can rightly be considered one constituent, "often introducing a new subject or section."
• The vocative kings (מְלָכִים) occurs before the imperative to identify the addressee. In the following clause, the vocative appears at the end of the clause, resulting in a symmetrical structure with the previous line: (a) kings (b) wise up // (b) accept disipline (a) earthly rulers.
• The verb here translated accept discipline (הִוָּסְרוּ) has been translated variously as "be warned" (NIV, ESV, NLT, NRSV), "be instructed" (KJV), "submit to correction" (NET), "learn this lesson" (GNT), and "accept discipline" (NJPS). According to SDBH, the word means "literally: to be disciplined; hence: = action by which humans bring themselves to a position of submission before God, as a result of his disciplinary actions."

v. 11

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-clear
11a	עִבְד֣וּ אֶת־יְהוָ֣ה בְּיִרְאָ֑ה	Serve YHWH with fear
11b	וְ֝גִ֗ילוּ בִּרְעָדָֽה׃	and rejoice with trembling!

Expanded Paraphrase

Serve YHWH, the heavenly Lord, with fear. Live according to his requirements, especially his "decree" (v. 7). Celebrate his rule and rejoice at his good kingship, but do so with fear and trembling, for he can destroy you in a moment if you step out of line!

Grammatical Diagram

Glosses Phrase Ellipses Full Screen

SimpleGrammar
DiscourseUnit [v.11]
    Fragment
      ClauseCluster
        Clause
          Predicate
            verb: עִבְדוּ serve
            Object
              particle: אֶת 
              noun: יְהוָה YHWH
            Adverbial
              PrepositionalPhrase
                Preposition
                  preposition: בְּ with
                Object
                  noun: יִרְאָה fear
        Conjunction
          conjunction: וְ and
        Clause
          Predicate
            verb: גִילוּ rejoice
            Adverbial
              PrepositionalPhrase
                Preposition
                  preposition: בִּ with
                Object
                  noun: רְעָדָה trembling 
  

Notes

• To serve (עִבְדוּ) YHWH in this context is to submit to his authority, his lordship (cf. the word "Lord" in v. 4), and to observe his "decree" (vv. 7-9). SDBH defines the word as an "action by which humans, either as individuals or as groups, assume a position of subservience towards a deity, perform the required rituals, and live in accordance with the requirements of that deity."
• The clause rejoice with trembling (גִילוּ בִּרְעָדָה) is difficult to understand, since the emotions associated with "rejoicing" (i.e., joy) and the emotions associated "trembling" (i.e., fear) seem to be incompatible with each other. But the contradiction is only apparent. Both joy and fear are appropriate responses to YHWH's reign (cf. Pss 97:1; 99:1). See The Meaning of גִילוּ בִּרְעָדָה in Ps 2:11 for a detailed discussion of the issue.

v. 12

v.	Hebrew	Close-but-clear
12a	נַשְּׁקוּ־בַ֡ר פֶּן־יֶאֱנַ֤ף ׀ וְתֹ֬אבְדוּ דֶ֗רֶךְ	Kiss the son, or else he will become angry and you will perish in your way,
12b	כִּֽי־יִבְעַ֣ר כִּמְעַ֣ט אַפּ֑וֹ	for his anger quickly ignites.
12c	אַ֝שְׁרֵ֗י כָּל־ח֥וֹסֵי בֽוֹ׃	Happy are all who take refuge in him!

Expanded Paraphrase

Kiss the son as a sign of honor and submission, or else he will become angry and you will perish in your way of rebellion that you have chosen to walk, for his anger easily ignites and burns everything in its path. You will not stand a chance if you oppose him! But if you submit to him, then you and your peoples will flourish under his righteous rule. Happy are all who take refuge in him, for he is a good king who takes care of his people!

Grammatical Diagram

Glosses Phrase Ellipses Full Screen

SimpleGrammar
DiscourseUnit [v. 12]
    Fragment
      Clause
        Predicate
          verb: נַשְּׁקוּ kiss
          Adverbial <status="alternative">
            Nominal
              adjective: בַר pure <status="alternative">
          Adverbial <status="alternative">
            PrepositionalPhrase
              Preposition
                preposition: בְ <status="alternative emendation">
              Object
                ConstructChain
                  noun: רַגְלָי feet <status="alternative emendation">
                  suffix-pronoun: ו him <status="alternative emendation">
          Object
            noun: בַר son
            Nominal
              adjective: בַר pure <status="alternative">
        SubordinateClause
          Conjunction
            conjunction: פֶּן or else
          ClauseCluster
            Clause
              Predicate
                verb: יֶאֱנַף he will become angry
            Conjunction
              conjunction: וְ and
            Clause
              Predicate
                verb: תֹאבְדוּ you will perish
                Adverbial <gloss="in your way">
                  noun: דֶרֶךְ way
              SubordinateClause
                Conjunction
                  conjunction: כִּי for
                Clause
                  Subject
                    ConstructChain <gloss="his anger">
                      noun: אַפּ anger
                      suffix-pronoun: וֹ him
                  Predicate
                    verb: יִבְעַר ignites
                    Adverbial
                      PrepositionalPhrase <gloss="quickly">
                        Preposition
                          preposition: כִּ as
                        Object
                          noun: מְעַט little
    Fragment
      ConstructChain <gloss="Happy are all who take refuge in him">
        Nominal
          noun: אַשְׁרֵי happiness
        ConstructChain
          Nominal
            quantifier: כָּל all
          Nominal
            Clause
              Predicate
                verb-participle: חוֹסֵי those who take refuge
                Adverbial
                  PrepositionalPhrase
                    Preposition
                      preposition: ב in
                    Object
                      suffix-pronoun: וֹ him 
  

Notes

• A kiss is "a symbol of veneration both in the secular-political and in the cultic sphere." In other words, it was a way of expressing honor or giving homage to an important individual. Normally, the verb is used in the qal stem, but here is it used in the piel. The use of the piel probably implies repeated kissing (event-internal plurality). The following Venn diagram explores the meaning of the Hebrew verb נשׁק compared to the English verb "kiss"

• The word transalted son (בַר) is difficult, because it is not the normal Hebrew word for "son" (בֵּן, see v. 7) but the Aramaic word for "son." See The Text and Meaning of Ps 2:12a for a detailed discussion of the issue. In short, we argue that בַר should be interpreted as the Aramaic word for "son." This interpretation is suggested by the prominence of the concept of sonship in Ps 2 (cf. vv. 7–8) along the fact that vv. 10–12 correspond to vv. 2–3 (which mention rebellion against the Lord and against his anointed). The use of an Aramaic word is not out of place in Ps 2, which has already used two Aramaic words (vv. 1, 9). The use of בַר in v. 12 might be phonologically motivated (to avoid בן פן; note also the alliteration of בר sounds in the immediate context), or it might be motivated by the fact that the psalmist is speaking to foreign kings (cf. Jer 10:11). The alternative interpretations, by contrast, are grammatically problematic.
• The subject of the following clause, or else he will become angry (פֶּן־יֶאֱנַף), is not clear. The subject could be either YHWH or the king. If we are correct that בַר in the previous clause means "son," then the king is the participant most recently mentioned and thus the most likely candidate for the 3ms verb and pronoun in the subsequent clauses. "Kiss the son, or else he [=the son] will become angry..." Furthermore, v. 9 has already said that it is the son who will crush the nations with an iron scepter. Nevertheless, even those who agree that בַר means "son" have argued that the 3ms verbs and pronouns in v. 12 refer to YHWH. One argument for this view is that the verb "become angry" (יֶאֱנַף) elsewhere refers exclusively to divine anger. Another argument is that the pronoun in the phrase "all who take refuge in him" most naturally refers to YHWH. Also, the same phrase "his anger" occurs in v. 5 where it refers to YHWH's anger. But the application of divine attributes to the king makes sense in this context where the king is described as YHWH's son (v. 7), since sons are the image and likeness of their fathers. Psalm 110 ends with a similar blurring of the identities of God and king. Thus, there is no good reason not to take the son, who was the most recently mentioned participant, as the referent of the 3ms language in v. 12.
• The adverbial accusative way (דֶּרֶךְ) probably means "in the way" (ESV), i.e., "in the midst of all your activities" (NLT), or, more specifically, "in your rebellion" (CSB). Other translations say "from the way" (e.g., KJV. The language here recalls Ps 1:6: "the way of wicked people will come to an end (דֶרֶךְ...תֹּאבֵד)" (Ps 1:6).
• The adverbial phrase quickly (כִּמְעַט) is translated variously as "but a little," "easily," "quickly," and "soon." Thus we have the following three options for understanding כִּמְעַט (the second and third of the above translations resulting in the same meaning of כִּמְעַט):

1. "when his wrath has only just been ignited" ( = his anger is extremely powerful)
2. "for/when his anger quickly/easily ignites" (= it does not take much for him to get angry, so tread lightly!)
3. "for his anger will soon ignite" (= the time of his wrath is immanent, so hurry and submit to him!)

The second of these options ("quickly/easily") seems the most likely, given the context and the use of the phrase elsewhere. In spoken English, we might paraphrase: "'cause his anger ignites like that (*snap fingers*)." The clause is explaining why it is that they will perish in the way if they refuse to submit to the son; it is because his anger ignites quickly/easily. The clause is reminiscent of YHWHs' warning to Moses in Exod 33:3—"But I will not go with you, because you are a stiff-necked people and I might destroy you on the way (פֶּן אֲכֶלְךָ בַּדָּרֶךְ)" (Exod 33:3).

• The adverbial "quickly" (כִּמְעַט) is fronted before the subject ("his anger," אַפּוֹ) for corrective focus, i.e., you will perish in your conduct because his anger does not burn slowly (and ineffectively with empty promises of wrath), but quickly and easily. This also lends itself to the urgency of the imperatives introduced in vv. 10-12. Furthermore, it also causes the phrase "his angery" (אַפּוֹ) to be clause final, bringing to mind v. 5a, which also has "his anger" (בְאַפּוֹ) at the end of the clause.
• The phrase his anger (אַפּוֹ) is repeated from v. 5a. It is one of the few repeated words/phrases in this psalm, and it highlights the similarity between YHWH (v. 5) and his son (v. 12). Both respond to the rebellion with "anger." The following chart shows all of the repeated roots in Ps 2. The "anger" connection is shown in red. In addition to the word "anger," the following words are repeated: "nations" (גּוֹיִם), "king" (מֶלֶךְ), "earth" (אֶרֶץ), "YHWH." These repeated words provide a succinct summary of the psalm: YHWH and his king respond with anger to the rebellious kings and nations of earth. The repetition of these words also illustrates the movement of the psalm, from conflict (vv. 1-2) to resolution (vv. 8-11). Furthermore, the repetition of the word "king" creates a contrast between the earthly kings (vv. 2, 10) and YHWH's king (v. 6).

• v. 12 - The כִּי at the beginning of v. 12b, translated here as for, could be either causal ("for his anger easily ignites") or temporal ("when his anger quickly ignites"). If the adverbial phrase כִּמְעַט means "quickly/easily," as argued above, then the כִּי is probably causal. The clause is explaining why it is that they will perish in the way if they refuse to submit to the son; it is because his anger ignites (not slowly, but) quickly/easily.
• The word ignites (יִבְעַר) (so CSB, NET) means "specifically begin to burn, be kindled."
• On the expression happy are... (אַשְׁרֵי), see notes on Ps 1:1.
• "The refuge metaphor seems to communicate the comprehensive responsibility of ancient oriental kings to ensure the safety of their subjects through military and judicial means."

Legends

Grammatical diagram

The grammar layer visually represents the grammar and syntax of each clause. It also displays alternative interpretations of the grammar. (For more information, click "Grammar Legend" below.)

Grammar Legend

Visualization	Description
	The clause is represented by a horizontal line with a vertical line crossing through it, separating the subject and the verb.
	The object is indicated by a vertical line that does not cross the horizontal line of the clause. Infinitives and participles may also have objects. If the direct object marker (d.o.m.) is present in the text, it appears in the diagram immediately before the object. If the grammar includes a secondary object, the secondary object will appear after the object, separated by another vertical line that does not cross the horizontal line of the clause.
	The subject complement follows the verb (often omitted in Hebrew) separated with a line leaning toward the right. It can be a noun, a whole prepositional phrase or an adjective. The later two appear modifying the complement slot.
	When a noun further describes or renames the object, it is an object complement. The object complement follows the object separated by a line leaning toward the right.
	In a construct chain, the noun in the absolute form modifies the noun in the construct form.
	Participles are indicated in whatever position in the clause they are in with a curved line before the participle. Participles can occur as nominal, where they take the place of a noun, predicate, where they take the place of a verb, or attributive, where they modify a noun or a verb similar to adjectives or adverbs.
	Infinitives are indicated by two parallel lines before the infinitive that cross the horizontal line. Infinitive constructs can appear as the verb in an embedded clause. Infinitive absolutes typically appear as an adverbial.
	The subject of the infinitive often appears in construct to it. In this situation, the infinitive and subject are diagrammed as a construct chain.
	The object of the infinitive is indicated by a vertical line that does not cross the horizontal line of the infinitival clause.
	Modifiers are represented by a solid diagonal line from the word they modify. They can attach to verbs, adjectives, or nouns. If modifying a verb or adjective, it is an adverb, but if modifying a noun, it is an adjective, a quantifier, or a definite article. If an adverb is modifying a modifier, it is connected to the modifier by a small dashed horizontal line.
	Adverbials are indicated by a dashed diagonal line extending to a horizontal line. These are nouns or infinitives that function adverbially (modifying either a verb or a participle), but are not connected by a preposition.
	Prepositional phrases are indicated by a solid diagonal line extending to a horizontal line. The preposition is to the left of the diagonal line and the dependent of the preposition is on the horizontal line. They can modify verbs (adverbial) or nouns (adjectival).
	Embedded clauses are indicated by a "stand" that looks like an upside-down Y. The stand rests in the grammatical position that the clause fulfills. Extending from the top of the stand is a horizontal line for the clause. If introduced by a complementizer, for example כִּי, the complementizer appears before the stand. Embedded clauses can stand in the place of any noun.
	When clauses are joined by a conjunction, they are compound clauses. These clauses are connected by a vertical dotted line. The conjunction is placed next to the dotted line.
	Within a clause, if two or more parts of speech are compound, these are represented by angled lines reaching to the two compound elements connected by a solid vertical line. If a conjunction is used, the conjunction appears to the left of the vertical line. Almost all parts of speech can be compound.
	Subordinate clauses are indicated by a dashed line coming from the line dividing the subject from the predicate in the independent clause and leading to the horizontal line of the subordinate clause. The subordinating conjunction appears next to the dashed line.
	Relative clauses also have a dashed line, but the line connects the antecedent to the horizontal line of the relative clause. The relative particle appears next to the dashed line.
	Sentence fragments are represented by a horizontal line with no vertical lines. They are most frequently used in superscriptions to psalms. They are visually similar to discourse particles and vocatives, but most often consist of a noun phrase (that does not refer to a person or people group) or a prepositional phrase.
	In the body of the psalm, a horizontal line by itself (with no modifiers or vertical lines) can indicate either a discourse particle or a vocative (if the word is a noun referring to a person or people group). A discourse particle is a conjunction or particle that functions at the discourse level, not at the grammatical level. Vocatives can appear either before or after the clause addressed to them, depending on the word order of the Hebrew.
	Apposition is indicated by an equal sign equating the two noun phrases. This can occur with a noun in any function in a sentence.

Hebrew text colors
Default preferred text	The default preferred reading is represented by a black line. The text of the MT is represented in bold black text.
Dispreferred reading	The dispreferred reading is an alternative interpretation of the grammar, represented by a pink line. The text of the MT is represented in bold pink text, while emendations and revocalizations retain their corresponding colors (see below).
Emended text	Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is represented by bold blue text, whether that reading is preferred or dispreferred.
Revocalized text	Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is represented by bold purple text, whether that reading is preferred or dispreferred.
(Supplied elided element)	Any element that is elided in the Hebrew text is represented by bold gray text in parentheses.
( )	The position of a non-supplied elided element is represented by empty black parentheses. For example, this would be used in the place of the noun when an adjective functions substantivally or in the place of the antecedent when a relative clause has an implied antecedent.

Gloss text colors
Gloss used in the CBC	The gloss used in the Close-but-Clear translation is represented by bold blue text.
Literal gloss >> derived meaning	A gloss that shows the more literal meaning as well as the derived figurative meaning is represented in blue text with arrows pointing towards the more figurative meaning. The gloss used in the CBC will be bolded.
Supplied elided element	The gloss for a supplied elided element is represented in bold gray text.

Shapes and colours on grammatical diagram

(For more information, click "Phrase-level Legend" below.)

Phrase-level Legend

Visualization	Description
	The prepositional phrase is indicated by a solid green oval.
	The construct chain is indicated by a solid yellow oval.
	When the conjunction ו appears at the phrase-level (not clause-level), it is indicated by a solid light purple oval.
	The article is indicated by a solid blue oval.

Expanded paraphrase

(For more information, click "Expanded Paraphrase Legend" below.)

Expanded Paraphrase Legend

Expanded paraphrase legend
Close but Clear (CBC) translation	The CBC, our close but clear translation of the Hebrew, is represented in bold text.
Assumptions	Assumptions which provide background information, presuppositions, entailments, and inferences are represented in italics.

Bibliography

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Cook, John A. 2024. The Biblical Hebrew Verb: A Linguistic Introduction. Learning Biblical Hebrew. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic.

Craigie, Peter C. 1983. Psalms 1–50. WBC 19. Waco, TX: Word.

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Eaton, J. H. 1975. Kingship and the Psalms. London: S.C.M. Press.

Fokkelman, J. P. 2000. Major Poems of the Hebrew Bible: At the Interface of Hermeneutics and Structural Analysis. Studia Semitica Neerlandica. Assen, The Netherlands: Van Gorcum.

Garr, W. Randall. 2003. In His Own Image and Likeness : Humanity, Divinity, and Monotheism. Leiden ; Boston: Brill.'

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Herion, Gary A. 1992. “Wrath of God (OT).” In Anchor Bible Dictionary, edited by David Noel Freedman, 6:989–96. New York: Doubleday.

Hilber, John. 2009. “Psalms.” In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: The Minor Prophets, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, edited by John Walton. Vol. 5. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

Hoffmeier, James. 1994. “The King as Son of God in Egypt and Israel.” The Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 24:28–38.

Hossfeld, Frank-Lothar, and Erich Zenger. 1993. Die Psalmen I: Psalm 1–50. Neue Echter Bibel. Würzburg: Echter.

Hupfeld, Hermann. 1855. Die Psalmen. Vol. 1. Gotha: Friedrich Andreas Perthes.

Ibn Ezra. Ibn Ezra on Psalms.

Jenni, Ernst. 2000. Die hebräischen Präpositionen Band 3: Die Präposition Lamed. Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer.

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Kim, Young Bok. 2023. Hebrew Forms of Address: A Sociolinguistic Analysis. Atlanta: SBL Press. vvo.

Lugt, Pieter van der. 2006. Cantos and Strophes in Biblical Hebrew Poetry: With Special Reference to the First Book of the Psalter. Vol. 1. 3 vols. Oudtestamentische Studiën 53. Leiden: Brill.

Malbim. Malbim on Psalms.

Mena, Andrea K. 2012. “The Semantic Potential of עַל in Genesis, Psalms, and Chronicles.” MA Thesis, Stellenbosch University.

Murnane, William Joseph, and Edmund S. Meltzer. 1995. Texts from the Amarna Period in Egypt. Writings from the Ancient World 5. Atlanta: Scholars Press.

Niccacci, Alviero. 2006. “The Biblical Hebrew Verbal System in Poetry.” In Biblical Hebrew in Its Northwest Semitic Setting: Typological and Historical Perspectives, edited by Steven E. Fassberg and Avi Hurvitz, 247–68. Publication of the Institute for Advanced Studies, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem 1. Jerusalem: Hebrew University Magnes Press.

Penney, Jason. 2023. “A Typological Examination of Pluractionality in the Biblical Hebrew Piel.” MA, Dallas: Dallas International University.

Poole, Matthew. 1678. Synopsis Criticorum Aliorumque Sacrae Scripturae. Vol. 2: a Jobi ad Canticum Canticorum.

Raabe, Paul. 1991. “Deliberate Ambiguity in the Psalter.” Journal of Biblical Literature 110 (2): 213–27.

Radak. Radak on Psalms.

Radner, Karen. 2016. “3 Revolts in the Assyrian Empire: Succession Wars, Rebellions Against a False King and Independence Movements.” In Revolt and Resistance in the Ancient Classical World and the Near East, edited by John J. Collins and J.G. Manning, 39–54. Brill.

Rashi. Rashi on Psalms.

Ringgren, Helmer. 1983. “Psalm 2 and Bēlit’s Oracle for Ashurbanipal.” In The Word of the Lord Shall Go Forth, edited by Carol L Meyers and M. O’Connor, 91–95. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.

Robar, Elizabeth. 2015. The Verb and the Paragraph in Biblical Hebrew: A Cognitive-Linguistic Approach. Vol. 78. Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics. Leiden: Brill.

Robar, Elizabeth. 2022. “Morphology and Markedness: On Verb Switching in Hebrew Poetry: SBL Annual Meeting 2020 Linguistics and Biblical Hebrew Seminar: Typological and Grammatical Categorization of Biblical Hebrew.” Journal for Semitics 30 (2).

Tatu, Silviu. 2006. “The Rhetorical Interpretation of the Yiqtol//Qatal (Qatal//Yiqtol) Verbal Sequence in Classical Hebrew Poetry and Its Research History.” Transformation: An International Journal of Holistic Mission Studies 23 (1): 17–23.

Tsumura, David Toshio. 2023. Vertical Grammar of Parallelism in Biblical Hebrew. Ancient Israel and Its Literature 47. Atlanta: SBL Press.

Victor, Peddi. 1966. “Note on Choq in the Old Testament.” Vetus Testamentum 16 (3): 358–61.

Walton, John H. 2018. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Second edition. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group.

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Footnotes

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