About the Grammar Layer

The grammar layer visually represents the grammar and syntax of each clause. It also displays alternative interpretations of the grammar. (For more information, click "Show/Hide Grammar Legend" below.)

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Visualization	Description
	The clause is represented by a horizontal line with a vertical line crossing through it, separating the subject and the verb.
	The object is marked by a vertical line that does not cross the horizontal line of the clause. Infinitives and participles may also have objects. If the direct object marker (d.o.m.) is present in the text, it appears in the diagram immediately before the object. If the grammar includes a secondary object, the secondary object will appear after the object, separated by another vertical line that does not cross the horizontal line of the clause.
	The subject complement follows the verb (often omitted in Hebrew) separated with a line leaning toward the right. It can be a noun, a whole prepositional phrase or an adjective. The later two appear modifying the complement slot.
	When a noun further describes or renames the object, it is an object complement. The object complement follows the object separated by a line leaning toward the right.
	In a construct chain, the noun in the absolute form modifies the noun in the construct form.
	Participles are indicated in whatever position in the clause they are in with a curved line before the participle. Participles can occur as nominal, where they take the place of a noun, predicate, where they take the place of a verb, or attributive, where they modify a noun or a verb similar to adjectives or adverbs.
	Infinitives are marked with two parallel lines before the infinitive that cross the horizontal line. Infinitive constructs can appear as the verb in an embedded clause. Infinitive absolutes typically appear as an adverbial.
	The subject of the infinitive often appears in construct to it. In this situation, the infinitive and subject are diagrammed as a construct chain.
	The object of the infinitive is marked by a vertical line that does not cross the horizontal line of the infinitival clause.
	Modifiers are represented by a solid diagonal line from the word they modify. They can attach to verbs, adjectives, or nouns. If modifying a verb or adjective, it is an adverb, but if modifying a noun, it is an adjective, a quantifier, or a definite article. If an adverb is modifying a modifier, it is connected to the modifier by a small dashed horizontal line.
	Adverbials are marked by a dashed diagonal line extending to a horizontal line. These are nouns or infinitives that function adverbially (modifying either a verb or a participle), but are not connected by a preposition.
	Prepositional phrases are marked by a solid diagonal line extending to a horizontal line. The preposition is to the left of the diagonal line and the dependent of the preposition is on the horizontal line. They can modify verbs (adverbial) or nouns (adjectival).
	Embedded clauses are marked by a "stand" that looks like an upside-down Y. The stand rests in the grammatical position that the clause fulfills. Extending from the top of the stand is a horizontal line for the clause. If introduced by a complementizer, for example כִּי, the complementizer appears before the stand. Embedded clauses can stand in the place of any noun.
	When clauses are joined by a conjunction, they are compound clauses. These clauses are connected by a vertical dotted line. The conjunction is placed next to the dotted line.
	Within a clause, if two or more parts of speech are compound, these are represented by angled lines reaching to the two compound elements connected by a solid vertical line. If a conjunction is used, the conjunction appears to the left of the vertical line. Almost all parts of speech can be compound.
	Subordinate clauses are marked by a dashed line coming from the line dividing the subject from the predicate in the independent clause and leading to the horizontal line of the subordinate clause. The subordinating conjunction appears next to the dashed line.
	Relative clauses also have a dashed line, but the line connects the antecedent to the horizontal line of the relative clause. The relative particle appears next to the dashed line.
	Sentence fragments are represented by a horizontal line with no vertical lines. They are most frequently used in superscriptions to psalms. They are visually similar to discourse particles and vocatives, but most often consist of a noun phrase (that does not refer to a person or people group) or a prepositional phrase.
	In the body of the psalm, a horizontal line by itself (with no modifiers or vertical lines) can indicate either a discourse particle or a vocative (if the word is a noun referring to a person or people group). A discourse particle is a conjunction or particle that functions at the discourse level, not at the grammatical level. Vocatives can appear either before or after the clause addressed to them, depending on the word order of the Hebrew.
	Apposition is marked with an equal sign equating the two noun phrases. This can occur with a noun in any function in a sentence.

Hebrew text colors
Black font and line color	Default preferred text
Pink font and line color	Dispreferred reading
Blue font	Emended text (both preferred and dispreferred)
Purple font	Revocalized text (both preferred and dispreferred)
(Gray font with parentheses)	Supplied elided element
( )	Non-supplied elided element For example, this would be used in the place of the noun when an adjective functions substantivally or in the place of the antecedent when a relative clause has an implied antecedent.

Gloss text colors
Bold blue font	Gloss used in CBC
Literal gloss >> derived meaning	A gloss that shows the more literal meaning as well as the figurative meaning. The bold gloss is used in the CBC.
Gray font	Gloss for supplied elided element

Grammar Visuals for Psalm 19

The grammar layer visually represents the grammar and syntax of each clause. It also displays alternative interpretations of the grammar. (For more information, click "Grammar Legend" below.)

Visualization	Description
	The clause is represented by a horizontal line with a vertical line crossing through it, separating the subject and the verb.
	The object is indicated by a vertical line that does not cross the horizontal line of the clause. Infinitives and participles may also have objects. If the direct object marker (d.o.m.) is present in the text, it appears in the diagram immediately before the object. If the grammar includes a secondary object, the secondary object will appear after the object, separated by another vertical line that does not cross the horizontal line of the clause.
	The subject complement follows the verb (often omitted in Hebrew) separated with a line leaning toward the right. It can be a noun, a whole prepositional phrase or an adjective. The later two appear modifying the complement slot.
	When a noun further describes or renames the object, it is an object complement. The object complement follows the object separated by a line leaning toward the right.
	In a construct chain, the noun in the absolute form modifies the noun in the construct form.
	Participles are indicated in whatever position in the clause they are in with a curved line before the participle. Participles can occur as nominal, where they take the place of a noun, predicate, where they take the place of a verb, or attributive, where they modify a noun or a verb similar to adjectives or adverbs.
	Infinitives are indicated by two parallel lines before the infinitive that cross the horizontal line. Infinitive constructs can appear as the verb in an embedded clause. Infinitive absolutes typically appear as an adverbial.
	The subject of the infinitive often appears in construct to it. In this situation, the infinitive and subject are diagrammed as a construct chain.
	The object of the infinitive is indicated by a vertical line that does not cross the horizontal line of the infinitival clause.
	Modifiers are represented by a solid diagonal line from the word they modify. They can attach to verbs, adjectives, or nouns. If modifying a verb or adjective, it is an adverb, but if modifying a noun, it is an adjective, a quantifier, or a definite article. If an adverb is modifying a modifier, it is connected to the modifier by a small dashed horizontal line.
	Adverbials are indicated by a dashed diagonal line extending to a horizontal line. These are nouns or infinitives that function adverbially (modifying either a verb or a participle), but are not connected by a preposition.
	Prepositional phrases are indicated by a solid diagonal line extending to a horizontal line. The preposition is to the left of the diagonal line and the dependent of the preposition is on the horizontal line. They can modify verbs (adverbial) or nouns (adjectival).
	Embedded clauses are indicated by a "stand" that looks like an upside-down Y. The stand rests in the grammatical position that the clause fulfills. Extending from the top of the stand is a horizontal line for the clause. If introduced by a complementizer, for example כִּי, the complementizer appears before the stand. Embedded clauses can stand in the place of any noun.
	When clauses are joined by a conjunction, they are compound clauses. These clauses are connected by a vertical dotted line. The conjunction is placed next to the dotted line.
	Within a clause, if two or more parts of speech are compound, these are represented by angled lines reaching to the two compound elements connected by a solid vertical line. If a conjunction is used, the conjunction appears to the left of the vertical line. Almost all parts of speech can be compound.
	Subordinate clauses are indicated by a dashed line coming from the line dividing the subject from the predicate in the independent clause and leading to the horizontal line of the subordinate clause. The subordinating conjunction appears next to the dashed line.
	Relative clauses also have a dashed line, but the line connects the antecedent to the horizontal line of the relative clause. The relative particle appears next to the dashed line.
	Sentence fragments are represented by a horizontal line with no vertical lines. They are most frequently used in superscriptions to psalms. They are visually similar to discourse particles and vocatives, but most often consist of a noun phrase (that does not refer to a person or people group) or a prepositional phrase.
	In the body of the psalm, a horizontal line by itself (with no modifiers or vertical lines) can indicate either a discourse particle or a vocative (if the word is a noun referring to a person or people group). A discourse particle is a conjunction or particle that functions at the discourse level, not at the grammatical level. Vocatives can appear either before or after the clause addressed to them, depending on the word order of the Hebrew.
	Apposition is indicated by an equal sign equating the two noun phrases. This can occur with a noun in any function in a sentence.

Hebrew text colors
Default preferred text	The default preferred reading is represented by a black line. The text of the MT is represented in bold black text.
Dispreferred reading	The dispreferred reading is an alternative interpretation of the grammar, represented by a pink line. The text of the MT is represented in bold pink text, while emendations and revocalizations retain their corresponding colors (see below).
Emended text	Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is represented by bold blue text, whether that reading is preferred or dispreferred.
Revocalized text	Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is represented by bold purple text, whether that reading is preferred or dispreferred.
(Supplied elided element)	Any element that is elided in the Hebrew text is represented by bold gray text in parentheses.
( )	The position of a non-supplied elided element is represented by empty black parentheses. For example, this would be used in the place of the noun when an adjective functions substantivally or in the place of the antecedent when a relative clause has an implied antecedent.

Gloss text colors
Gloss used in the CBC	The gloss used in the Close-but-Clear translation is represented by bold blue text.
Literal gloss >> derived meaning	A gloss that shows the more literal meaning as well as the derived figurative meaning is represented in blue text with arrows pointing towards the more figurative meaning. The gloss used in the CBC will be bolded.
Supplied elided element	The gloss for a supplied elided element is represented in bold gray text.

v. 1

v. 2

Option 1 (preferred): singular מעשה (abstract noun: 'workmanship, skill' or collective noun: 'work'); so MT, LXX, Aquila, Jerome IH, Peshitta. The singular might refer to collectively to YHWH's works, specifically to YHWH's creation of the world, or to the abstract quality of YHWH's craftsmanship (Isa 5:12; 29:23; Ps 28:5; Eccl 5:5; cf. HALOT). It makes for a fitting parallel to the abstract noun 'honor.'
Option 2: plural מעשי ('works, deeds'); so Sym (καὶ τὰ ἔργα τῶν χειρῶν αὐτοῦ), Tg (ועובדי ידוי). This option works well with the verbs ספר and נגד, which often imply a plurality of deeds (cf. ספר + מעשים in Pss 107:22; 118:17). However, Symmachus and Targum Pss might just be interpreting the singular מעשה as a collective (cf. Ps 90:17 מעשה ידינו; Judg 2:7 כָּל־מַעֲשֵׂ֤ה יְהוָה֙ הַגָּד֔וֹל אֲשֶׁ֥ר עָשָׂ֖ה לְיִשְׂרָאֵֽל [also v. 10]). In any case, the first option is has the better attestation. Furthermore a move from singular/collective מעשה to explicitly plural can be documented frequently in the tradition. 11Q5, for example, regularly reads such singulars as plurals (Pss 102:26; 143:5; additions in 146:9; 145:13[nun line]; 151A:4).

v. 3

Option 1: יוֹם//לַיְלָה as subjects and לְיוֹם and לְּלַיְלָה as adverbials. Cf. GNT: "Each day announces it to the following day; each night repeats it to the next" (so Jenni [lamed illocutionis rubric 622]; Radak). For לְ with the verb הביע, see Prov 1:23 (אַבִּ֣יעָה לָכֶ֣ם רוּחִ֑י). Cf. the analogous clause in Ps 145:4—דּ֣וֹר לְ֭דוֹר יְשַׁבַּ֣ח מַעֲשֶׂ֑יךָ, which most modern translations understand as "one generation will declare to another" (cf. NIV, NLT, ESV, NJPS, NET, HFA, ZÜR, GNB etc.; so also Jerome: generatio ad generationem; but see LXX: γενεὰ καὶ γενεὰ). Bratcher and Reyburn summarize the verse as follows: "Each day talks about God's glory to the next day... Every night shares knowledge of God with the following night" (1991, 189). The image is perhaps similar to the Seraphim in Isa 6, who proclaim YHWH's glory to one another— וְקָרָ֨א זֶ֤ה אֶל־זֶה֙ וְאָמַ֔ר קָד֧וֹשׁ׀ קָד֛וֹשׁ קָד֖וֹשׁ יְהוָ֣ה צְבָא֑וֹת מְלֹ֥א כָל־הָאָ֖רֶץ כְּבוֹדֽוֹ׃.
Option 2: יוֹם לְיוֹם//לַיְלָה לְּלַיְלָה as adverbials. "Day after day they pour forth speech; night after night they reveal knowledge" (NIV, cf. NLT, NET; so IBHS 31.3b; Rashi). Cf. the use of similar phrases: יוֹם יוֹם (e.g., Gen 39:10; Exod 15:16; Isa 58:2; Ps 61:9; 68:20; Prov 8:30, 34), מִיוֹם לְיוֹם (e.g., Ps 96:2), מִיוֹם אֶל יוֹם (I Chr 16:23), or לְיוֹם בְּיוֹם (II Chr 24:11). (As the Masoretes noted, the phrase יוֹם לְיוֹם occurs only here in the Bible. This is also the only time the word לַיְלָה is prefixed by a lamed preposition.) However, if this interpretation were correct, we would expect plural verbs, to match השמים and רקיע in the previous verse. All of the following pronominal references to השמים and רקיע are plural (e.g., קום [v. 5a], בהם [v. 5c]).
Option 3 (preferred): יוֹם לְיוֹם//לַיְלָה לְּלַיְלָה as subjects. So, possibly, ESV: "Day to day pours out speech, and night to night reveals knowledge." In other words, the passage of time—the movement of one day/night to the next—communicates YHWH's glory. "The orderly and useful succession of days and nights eloquently proclaims the glory of God" (Calvin). The MT accents, which group the lamed PP's with the preceding words (with the subject rather than the predicate), might also support this interpretation. The ancient versions could also be understood in this sense. For example, the LXX says, ἡμέρα τῇ ἡμέρᾳ ἐρεύγεται ῥῆμα, καὶ νὺξ νυκτὶ ἀναγγέλλει γνῶσιν, which Theodoret has understood to describe "the ordained succession of night and day" (trans. Hill 2000, 134). Cf. Jerome's commentary on this verse: quod ex ordine temporum ad Dei magis notitiam perveniamus (ed. Risse 2005, 112). Ps 145:4—דּ֣וֹר לְ֭דוֹר יְשַׁבַּ֣ח מַעֲשֶׂ֑יךָ—might also be understood in this way (cf. Zenger).
For the unusual dagesh in לְּלַיְלָה, see GKC §20f.

v. 4

As Calvin notes, "This verse receives two almost contrary interpretations, each of which, however, has the appearance of probability."
Option 1 (preferred): v. 4b as relative clause "There is no utterance, there are no words, whose sound goes unheard" (JPS85, cf. LXX: ὧν; Symmachus: ὧν; Aquila: οὗ; Theodotion: ὧν; Jerome [iuxta Hebr]: quibus; Peshitta: ܕܠܐ; Targum: דלא). Most ancient translations take Option 1. According to this option, the verse is saying that the communication of the heavens is ubiquitous; every "word" that the heavens utter (cf. v. 3) is heard. This view works well with the next verse (v. 5), which talks about the universal extent to which their communication reaches ("in all the earth"[marked focus] // "to the end of the world"). In other words, v. 5 states positively what v. 4 states negatively. "The discourse of the heavens and the firmament, of the day (of the sky by day) and of the night (of the sky by night), is not a discourse uttered in a corner, it is a discourse in speech that is everywhere audible, and in words that are understood by all" (Keil and Delitzsch 1996, 177). Hupfeld (409) objects that (1) this option destroys the parallelism, and (2) the yiqtol [יִשָּׁמַע] would be more appropriate if this option were intended.
Option 2: v. 4b as independent clause "No sound is heard from them" (NIV, cf. NLT, NET, GNT, CEV, NET, LUT, HFA, NGÜ, ELB, EÜ, GNB, ZÜR). Most modern translations take Option 2. According to this option, the verse is saying that the communication of the heavens is non-verbal, i.e., "There is no actual speech or word, nor is its voice literally heard" (NET). This option would create a nice synonymous parallelism (cf. Hengstenberg, Hupfeld). "But if this was David’s meaning, what need was there to repeat three times that they have not articulate speech? It would certainly be spiritless and superfluous to insist so much upon a thing so universally known" (Calvin).
The negative particle בְּלִי is "a rather rare synonym of לֹא" (JM §160m).

vv. 5-6a

For discussion of the emendation קוֹלָם, see the exegetical issue The Text and Meaning of Ps 19:5a.
See also phrase-level notes for a note about the phrase בִקְצֵ֣ה תֵ֭בֵל [יָצְאוּ].
v. 5c. לַ֝שֶּׁ֗מֶשׁ שָֽׂם־אֹ֥הֶל בָּהֶֽם The LXX reads ἐν τῷ ἡλίῳ ἔθετο τὸ σκήνωμα αὐτοῦ. The LXX might have read לשמש שם אהלו or perhaps just לשמש שם אהל (the 3ms pronoun added for clarity). The Greek revisers (α σ θ ε) read ἐν αὐτοῖς. Cf. Jerome (IH): soli posuit tabernaculum in eis; Peshitta: ܘܥܠ ܫܡܫܐ ܢܩܫ ܡܫܟܢܗ ܒܗܘܢ܂ (so Targum בהון). The prepositional phrase could refer either to the heavens as the location of the sun's home (v. 2 'in them', so Theodoret 135; Hupfeld 1855, 412) or as the means by which the sun's tent is set up (Hossfeld 1993, 133).
כְּחָתָן: cf. Isa 61:10 כֶּֽחָתָן֙ (with article).

v. 6b

v. 7

מִקְצֵה: The manuscript 11QPs-c has מקצי. "Cf. the quotation of Deut 13:8 in 11Q20 (Temple-b) XVI 4, where MT מקצה is written מקצי. The form מקצי may be singular (orthographic variant of מקצה) or plural" (DJD XXIII, 60).
BHS proposes עד for על (cf. LXX εως). "Some mss. reading עד, not על, but the correction is unnecessary; the preposition implies a verb of motion such as 'extend' (IBHS, p. 224, P. 11.4.3d)" (Waltke 2010, 363).

v. 8

תּוֹרַת: The manuscript 11QPs-c probably reads תור]ות] (cf. DJD XXIII, 59-60).

v. 9

vv. 10-11

Some scholars want to emend יראת to read אמרת (so BHS, citing Ps 119:38), but there is no manuscript evidence to support this reading. It is for good reason that modern translations have rejected it.
On the construction עֵדוּת יְהוָה נֶאֱמָנָה "YHWH's rules are faithfulness >> faithful" cf. Brockelman 14be.
Older grammarians analyzed the participle הנחמדים as in apposition to משפטי יהוה. E.g., "The demonstrative force of the article... includes those instances in which the article, mostly to a participle, joins on a new statement concerning a preceding noun. Although such participles, etc., are no doubt primarily regarded always as in apposition to a preceding substantive, the article nevertheless has in some of these examples almost the force of הוּא (הִיא/הֵמָּה) as the subject of a noun-clause [cf. Pss 33:15; 49:7; 104:3]... When such a participle has another co-ordinate with it, the latter is used without the article, since according to the above it strictly speaking represents a second predicate...; e.g., Job 5:10" (GKC 126b). So Hupfeld: "Aposs. zunächst zu משפטי יהוה, aber dem Sinn nach zu allen vorhergg. Wörtern für d. Gesetz. Zur Form der Appos. mit dem Artikel vgl. 18,33.48. 49,7" (1855, 419).
Waltke and O'Connor discuss use of ה in הנחמדים as an example of the "anaphoric use of the article," which is "based on the previous mention of the thing referred to" (IBHS 13.5.2d). In this usage, the article functions in a manner similar to a relative particle. This "so-called relative use of the article is most common with participles" (IBHS 13.5.2d).

v. 12

Does גַּם modify the whole clause or only the immediately following noun phrase?
- Option 1: גַּם modifies the whole clause. So ESV, JPS: "Moreover..." Cf. 2 Sam 11:24 (BHRG 402).
- Option 2: גַּם modifies only 'your servant'. Perhaps suggested by the accents and maqqef: גַּֽם־עַ֭בְדְּךָ. So NGÜ: "HERR, auch ich, dein Diener."
גַּם־עַבְדְּךָ נִזְהָר בָּהֶם: LXX: καὶ γὰρ ὁ δοῦλός σου φυλάσσει αὐτά (v. 12a). LXX has translated according to the context of v. 12b (so LXX-D): "Um den unsicheren hebr. Text (gewöhnlich wird die Verbform abgeleitet aus aram. זהר »erleuchtet sein«) sinnvoll wiederzugeben, hat die LXX das hebr. Verb im Licht von V.12b gedeutet" (II, 1548).

vv. 13-14a

The LXX reads καὶ ἀπὸ ἀλλοτρίων, probably from גם מזרים (cf. Sept-D 2011, 1548). This reading, which results from the confusion of ד with ר, hardly fits the context and is clearly secondary.
On the meaning of זדים, see The Meaning of זֵדִים in Ps 19:14.

v. 14bc

אַל־יִמְשְׁלוּ־בִי אָז אֵיתָם: LXX: ἐὰν μή μου κατακυριεύσωσιν, τότε ἄμωμος ἔσομαι.
אַל־יִמְשְׁלוּ־בִי אָז אֵיתָם: The Aramaic versions read v. 14b as a purpose clause:
- Targum: דלא ישלטון בי — "...that they may not have dominion over me" (Stec 2004, 55).
- Peshitta: ܕܠܐ ܢܫܬܠܛܘܢ ܒܝ ܒܝܫ̈ܐ — "...that the wicked may not exercise dominion over me" (Taylor 65).
The discourse marker אָז is sometimes used to introduce an apodosis (cf. BDB, IBHS 39.3.4f): after אם (e.g., Isa 58:14; Prov 2:5; Job 9:31) and with לולי or לו (e.g., Pss 119:92; 122:2-3). Sometimes, however, the protasis is "suppressed" (BDB, e.g., Job 3:13—יָ֝שַׁ֗נְתִּי אָ֤ז׀ יָנ֬וּחַֽ לִֽי translated in Greek as ὑπνώσας δὲ ἀνεπαυσάμην).
The form אֵיתָם is in pause and has plene spelling (= אֵתַם) (cf. Masorah parva: ל מל). It is a "later full-writing" of the 1cs verb from תמם (Bauer-Leander 58p). Cf. אם תיתם דרך סוד in 1QS 9:18. Radak sees a "hidden meaning" here "for the numerical value of yodh is ten, and in the Ten Words was the Law given, and they are its perfection and completeness. He says: then when Thou shalt clear me from my errors and help me so that sins of passion have not control over me, then I shall be perfect and whole."

v. 15

This verse is one complete clause—a beautiful example of vertical grammar (cf. Tsumura 2023:66-67).
יִהְיוּ לְרָצוֹן: Cf. Exod 28:38—וְהָיָ֤ה עַל־מִצְחוֹ֙ תָּמִ֔יד לְרָצ֥וֹן לָהֶ֖ם לִפְנֵ֥י יְהוָֽה.

Bibliography

Bauer, Hans, and Pontus Leander. 1922. Historische Grammatik der hebraischen Sprache des Alten Testamentes. Niemeyer.

Bratcher, Robert G., and William D. Reyburn. 1991. A Handbook on Psalms. UBS Handbook Series. New York: United Bible Societies.

Brockelman, Carl. 1928. Hebräische Syntax. Niemeyer.

Calvin, John. Commentary on the Book of Psalms. Translated by James Anderson. Grand Rapids: Christian Classics Ethereal Library.

Hengstenberg, Ernst Wilhelm. 1863. Commentary on the Psalms. Vol. 1. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.

Hossfeld, Frank-Lothar, and Erich Zenger. 1993. Die Psalmen I: Psalm 1–50. Neue Echter Bibel. Würzburg: Echter.

Hupfeld, Hermann. 1855. Die Psalmen. Vol. 1. Gotha: Friedrich Andreas Perthes.

Jenni, Ernst. 2000. Die Hebräischen Präpositionen Band 3: Die Präposition Lamed. Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer.

Keil, Carl Fredrick, and Franz Delitzsch. 1949. Psalms. Commentary on the Old Testament. Vol. 11. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.

Risse, Siegfried. 2005. Commentarioli in Psalmos: Anmerkungen zum Psalter. Fontes Christiani, Bd. 79. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers.

Tsumura, David Toshio. 2023. Vertical Grammar of Parallelism in Biblical Hebrew. Ancient Israel and its literature 47. Atlanta: SBL Press.

Theodoret. Commentary on the Psalms, Psalms 1-72. Translated by Robert C. Hill. 2000. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press.

Waltke, Bruce K., J. M. Houston, and Erika Moore. 2010. The Psalms as Christian Worship: A Historical Commentary. Grand Rapids, Mich: William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.

Psalm 19 Grammar