About the Semantics Layer[ ]

Semantics is the study of how language is used to represent meaning. The goal of semantic analysis for interpreting and translating the Bible is to understand the meaning of words and how they relate to each other in context. We want to understand what is implicit about word meaning – and thus assumed by the original audience – and make it explicit – and thus clear for us who are removed by time, language, and culture. The semantics layer is composed of three major branches: lexical semantics, phrase-level semantics and verbal semantics. (Click 'Expand' to the right for more information.)

About Lexical Semantics[ ]

One major branch of semantic study is lexical semantics, which refers to the study of word meanings. It examines semantic range (=possible meanings of a word), the relationship between words (e.g. synonymy, hyponymy), as well as the relationship between words and larger concepts (conceptual domains). One component of our approach involves not only the study of the Hebrew word meaning, but also of our own assumptions about word meaning in modern languages. Because the researcher necessarily starts with their own cultural assumptions (in our case, those of Western-trained scholars), this part of the analysis should be done afresh for every culture.

For a detailed description of our method, see the Lexical Semantics Creator Guidelines.

About Phrase-level Semantics[ ]

The Phrase-level Semantics layer analyses the meaning of syntactic units which are larger than the level of the word and smaller than the level of the clause. Specifically, this layer analyses the meaning of prepositional phrases (e.g., לְאִישׁ), construct phrases (e.g., אִישׁ אֱלֹהִים), phrases formed by a coordinating waw conjunction (e.g., אִישׁ וְאִשָּׁה) and noun phrases which consist of a noun plus a determiner (e.g., הָאִישׁ) or a quantifier (e.g., כֹּל אִישׁ).

For a detailed description of our method, see the Phrase-level Semantics Creator Guidelines.

About Verbal Semantics[ ]

This sub-layer focuses on the relationship between verbs, time and modality. These are important categories for interpretation and translation, and how one analyses a verb can have a significant effect on how it is rendered. This sub-layer has been through several iterations, as it strives to accomplish two things: (1) Transparency for the native Hebrew structures, and (2) Transparency for the interpretation necessary to translate the verbal semantics into other languages.

For a detailed description of our method, see the Verbal Semantics Creator Guidelines.

Semantics Visuals for Psalm 19[ ]

Lexical and Phrase-level Semantics Diagram[ ]

For legend, click "Expand" to the right

	Prepositional phrase	Construct chain	Construct chain within a prepositional phrase	Phrase-level waw	Article and כֹּל
Diagram Shading
Definition	- A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition plus its object. The phrase usually modifies the clause or another constituent in the clause.	- A construct chain, also called a 'genitive phrase', is a grammatical encoding of the relationship 'A of B,' in which A is a phonologically modified noun (in the construct state), and B is a phonologically unmodified noun (the absolute state).	- Some construct chains occur within prepositional phrases	- A waw conjunction can join units of all sizes. Phrase level waw join units at the word or phrase level (i.e., below the level of the clause).	- Definite articles tell you something about the identifiability or inclusiveness about the word it is attached to - כֹּל is a quantifier that tells you about the scope of a word it is attached to

See our growing collection of Venn Diagrams, not only for Psalm 19, but for all of the psalms.
See SDBH on Psalm 19.

v. 1[ ]

v. 2[ ]

Articles: Every use of the article in this psalm (vv. 2ab, 5ac, 7a) is real-world identifiable/unique, besides v. 11, which is resuming a previously identified entity.
Sky (הַשָּׁמַיִם):

Declaring honor (מְֽסַפְּרִ֥ים כְּבֽוֹד): Cf. Psa 96:3 - סַפְּר֣וּ בַגּוֹיִ֣ם כְּבוֹד֑וֹ בְּכָל־הָֽ֝עַמִּ֗ים נִפְלְאוֹתָֽיו׃.
Honor (כְּבוֹד):

Firmament (הָרָקִיעַ):

For the parallel of ספר and הגיד, see Job 12:7-8.
Telling about (מַגִּיד): "The most frequent content of such recounting, however, is Yahweh’s mighty salvific deeds; this is especially the case in the psalms... The salvific deeds themselves are described in a summary fashion as nip̱lāʾôṯ (Ps. 9:2[1]; 26:7; 75:2[1]; 96:3 [1 Ch. 16:24]) or as maʿaśîm (Ps. 107:22; 118:17; cf. ʿāśâ in 66:16), or are circumscribed with the noun šēm as an expression of Yahweh’s greatness and might as manifested in such deeds (22:23[22]; 102:22[21]; Sir. 51:1; cf. also geḏullâ in Ps. 145:6, kāḇôḏ in 96:3 [1 Ch. 16:24]..." (TDOT).
The singular מעשה might refer collectively to YHWH's deeds (so perhaps Symmachus and Targum Pss), to the product which YHWH has created (cf. Ps 102:26; so GNT and CEV: "what he has done"), or to the abstract quality of YHWH's workmanship (cf. Ps 28:5; cf. HALOT; Baethgen 1904, 55: "das Tun Gottes, was er zu tun vermag und zu tun pflegt"). The context (and the parallel with the abstract noun כבוד) suggests the latter. So NLT: "his craftsmanship."
The first noun in the construct phrase מַעֲשֵׂה יָדָיו, the abstract noun מַעֲשֵׂה (meaning "workmanship, skill") specifies a characteristic which "his hands" possess (cf. BHRG 25.4.1, "Possession [characteristic]-Possessor").

v. 3[ ]

The word יביע (hiphil נבע) is a relatively rare, poetic verb of speech (cf. Pss 59:8; 78:2; 94:4; 119:171; 145:7). It means "literally: to cause to bubble up (words); hence: = action by which humans utter many words -- (to cause) to bubble up > to pour out" (SDBH). So NIV/ESV: "pour forth/out"; Aquila/Symmachus: ἀναβλύζει ("gush up" [of a spring]; cf. Diggle 2021, 88). The image is that a person's mouth is like a spring, and their words are like water (cf. Prov. 10:11 מְק֣וֹר חַ֭יִּים פִּ֣י צַדִּ֑יק). In this case, however, the 'person' speaking is the sky. Thus, the words might evoke the image of rain falling from the sky.
For the parallel נבע//חוה, cf. Ben Sira 16:25: "I will pour out (אביעה) my spirit by measure and relate (אחוה) my knowledge in humility." Another close parallel which uses similar language as Ps 19:2-5 (including the noun מבע) is 1QH-a IX,29-32: "You yourself created breath for the tongue. You know its words, and you determine the fruit of the lips before they exist. You set the words according to the measuring line (על קו), and the utterance (מבע) of the breath of the lips by measure. And you bring forth the lines (ותוצא קוים) according to their mysteries and the utterances (מבעי) of the breath according to their calculus, in order to make known your glory (כבודכה) and to recount (ולספר) your wonders ..." (DJD XL 118-131).
The word חוה is an Aramaic loanword (HALOT), equivalent to Hebrew הגיד (cf. v. 2) (cf. Baethgen 1904, 55).

v. 4[ ]

v. 5ab[ ]

On קום, see The Text and Meaning of Ps 19:5a.
The earth (ארץ) is "the earth as opposed to the sky" (SDBH). Together, 'earth' (v. 5) and 'sky' (v. 2) cover all of creation (cf. Gen 1:1), such that YHWH's glory resonates throughout the whole of creation.

On the first prepositional phrase (בְּכָל־הָאָרֶץ) with the verb יצא, cf. 1 Chron 15:3—וַיֵּצֵ֥א שֵׁם־דָּוִ֖יד בְּכָל־הָֽאֲרָצֹ֑ות. "Unlike English, Biblical Hebrew does not lexicalize the distinction between dynamic and static location" (BHRG 39.6). In this case, where the location is dynamic (verb יצא), it is glossed "throughout."
The word words (מלה) is, like חוה in v. 3, an Aramaic loan word (HALOT) (cf. Ps 139:4; 2 Sam 23:2), synonymous with דבר (e.g., Tg Pss and Peshitta translate דברים in v. 4 with מלי/מלא).
The word world (תבל) is a poetic synonym of ארץ (e.g., Ps 24:1) and "a common noun that has acquired the value of a proper noun" (BHRG 216). It refers to "the earth as opposed to the sky, with special focus on the area that is inhabited by humans" (SDBH). English translations tend to use "earth//world" (KJV, ESV, NIV, NLT, CEV) or "world//earth" (GNT).
The second prepositional phrase (וּבִקְצֵה תֵבֵל) is more difficult.
- Aquila translates it as καὶ εἰς τέλος (cf. LXX εις τα περατα), which might reflect the Hebrew text ולקצה (so BHS). The reading ולקצה would work well with the elided verb יצא (cf. Jer 23:15 יָצְאָ֥ה חֲנֻפָּ֖ה לְכָל־הָאָֽרֶץ). English translations—whether or not they are actually reading a different Hebrew text—gloss the PP in v. 5b similarly to Aquila: "into... to" (NIV), "throughout... to" (NLT), "through... to" (KJV, ESV, NET).
- Another solution would be to read the plural בקצי תבל (cf. LXX τα περατα; Jerome: finibus; Peshitta ܘܒܣܘ̈ܦܝܗܿ; Targum ובסייפי): "throughout the ends of the world."
- Another explanation is that the verb יצא is actually not elided in the b-line. Instead, the b-line is a verbless clause: "Their verse-line has gone out throughout the whole earth, and their words (are) in the end of the world" (cf. Deut 30:4—אִם־יִהְיֶ֥ה נִֽדַּחֲךָ֖ בִּקְצֵ֣ה הַשָּׁמָ֑יִם).
- Some scholars, however, suggest that the ב + singular is appropriate here (e.g., Craigie 1983; Kraus 1988, citing Brockelman 106a). An "edge" (קצה) is not just a thin border, but a space (cf. Gen 23:9—אֶת־מְעָרַ֤ת הַמַּכְפֵּלָה֙ אֲשֶׁר־לֹ֔ו אֲשֶׁ֖ר בִּקְצֵ֣ה שָׂדֵ֑הוּ), and the "edge" of the world is a large space. Just as the words of the heavens can travel "throughout" the whole earth, so that can travel "throughout" the world's edge. Cf. Jenni 1992, 222.

vv. 5c-6[ ]

The prepositional phrase לַ֝שֶּׁ֗מֶשׁ indicates the beneficiary (cf. Jenni 2000, rubric 3513 [lamed dativum]; cf. Mal 1:3).
The prepositional phrase בָּהֶֽם refers to the heavens as the location of the sun's home (v. 2 'in them', so Theodoret 135; Hupfeld 1855, 412; Baethgen 1904, 56). This prepositional phrase connects the second strophe (which is about the sun) to the first strophe (which is about the heavens). It also corresponds poetically to the prepositional phrase בהם in v. 12 (גַּֽם־עַ֭בְדְּךָ נִזְהָ֣ר בָּהֶ֑ם).
The tent (אֹהֶל) or 'canopy' (cf. Joel 2:16) is hyponymous to אהל in the previous verse (cf. Waltke 2010, 363). It refers to a "temporary construction made of cloth; ► erected for a newly married couple" (SDBH). It is not clear, however, "whether the canopy was a special tent where the marriage was consummated, or whether it was a protective covering over the wedding ceremony itself" (TWOT #710). The first option seems more likely both in light of the parallel with חֵדֶר in Joel 2:16 and in light of the fact that it would make more sense for the sun to be 'going out' in the morning. Hence, "In Psalm 19:5 the 'shelter' refers to the bridegroom's chamber where presumably he takes his bride to consummate their marriage" (Waltke 2010, 363). So English translations: "chamber" (NIV, ESV, NET); cf. HALOT "nuptial chamber", DCH "bridal chamber."
Bridegroom (חָתָן): "= man who is about to be married or has just been married; ≈ often associated with joy" (SDBH). In this case (since he is coming out of 'his canopy' [see below]), the bridegroom has just recently been married. So NLT: "It bursts forth like a radiant bridegroom after his wedding."
The word גבור ("great one") refers to "a human being... who is renowned for his characteristics, such as physical strength, power, bravery, skill, wealth, good character, or a combination thereof" (SDBH). The word is often used in military contexts to refer to a military "hero" or "warrior," but it can also refer more generally to someone with "any special degree of physical might, power, authority, and splendor (“glory”)" (TDOT 1977, 373). In Psalm 19 it might refer to the (personified) sun as an exceptionally gifted athlete (cf. NLT: "great athlete"; GNT: "athlete"). But because "running" (רוץ) is elsewhere associated with warriors (cf. Joel 2:7; Job 16:14), the word here probably refers to a "warrior" (cf. Jdg 5:20 which describes celestial bodies fighting 'from their roads'). In particular, it might refer to the sun as a warrior-king. Genesis 1, for example, describes the sun as the king of the day (cf. Gen 1:16; Ps 136:8), and kings were expected to be great warriors who could run long distances (cf. 2 Sam 1:23; 22:33, 37; see Demsky 2005).
The prepositional phrase לָר֥וּץ modifies the verb ("is glad... to run"). Cf. 1 Sam 6:13—וַֽיִּשְׂמְח֖וּ לִרְאֹֽות (Jenni 2000, rubric 7924).

v. 7[ ]

There is some interesting evidence that יצא when predicated of the sun was understood as “shine” (see Nakata 2022).
On תקופה, see HALOT: "turning-point (of the sun in the sky) Ps 19:7... the eastern horizon as one extremity of the sky is the place from which the sun commences its course; at the opposite side, on the western horizon, is the turning-point, for this is the entrance for its nocturnal journey back under the earth." So SDBH: "= location where the sun has reached the end of its circuit and from where it is expected to move back to its beginning point." So Gesenius 2013: "(Wende)punkt."
In Ben Sira 43:7, תקופה may refer to the “waning” of moonlight.
The preposition על sometimes functions as a "contingent locative" (BHRG 39.20), i.e., "The trajector x is not horizontally above the trajector y, but in close proximity to it" (BHRG 39.20, citing Gen 24:43 and Ps 110:5). Hence, "at their edges" rather than "above their edges."^[1]

v. 8[ ]

תורה: "In the Psalter tôrâ appears to denote God’s revelation and its promulgation, presumed to exist in either oral or written form" (TDOT). Willgren, looking at all of the uses of the phrase תורת יהוה, shows that "at least from the post-exilic period, תורת יהוה was regularly associated with a law of Moses..., sometimes specified as written," and he argues convincingly that the phrase has this meaning in Ps 1:2 (Willgren 2018, 390-1). It is probably also this meaning here in Ps 19 (so also Waltke 2010, 365). Cf. Ps. 78:5 where תורה//עֵדוּת refers to the Law given at Sinai.
תְּמִימָה:

SDBH notes that משיבת נפש means "literally: to bring back (one's) self; hence: = causative process by which humans or deities restore a sense of well-being to (other) humans, which may extend from feeling refreshed after a good meal to feeling contented because of a major change in one's life situation -- to restore (someone's) life." Cf. Ps. 23:3 נַפְשִׁ֥י יְשׁוֹבֵ֑ב.
If תורה in the previous clause is associated especially with the Mosaic covenant, then עֵדוּת probably refers, specifically, to "the stipulations of the Sinai covenant laid down in writing" (HALOT 791b [HALOT, however, does not list Ps 19 under this entry]). Cf. Ps. 78:5 where תורה//עֵדוּת refers to the Law given at Sinai. Hillers argues that עֵדוּת is "actually another name for 'covenant'" and that "covenant" would be a better translation than "testimony" (Hillers 1969, 160ff; cf. NIDOTTE; so WEB: "covenant").

v. 9[ ]

The word פקודים refers to "rules regulating behavior" (SDBH). Whereas the previous verse used singular nouns to describe the Mosaic Law as a whole—תורה (covenant instruction) // עדות (the whole body of covenant stipulations)—this verse uses a plural noun to refer to the individual commandments of the covenant.
The word מצוה refers to YHWH's authoritative command (cf. TDOT 1997, 505 for מצוה "as an expression of authority"). It is probably a collective singular here (so Gesenius 2013, 724: "das Gesetz Gottes als Einheit"; cf. Ps 119:96; cf. ketiv מצותו in Deut 5:10; 7:9; 8:2)
In light of the comparison between the sun in vv. 5-7 and YHWH's law in vv. 8-10, Eaton argues that ברה does not mean "pure" but "brilliant" (so LXX τηλαυγής 'far-shining' [LSJ] and Jerome lucidum ['bright, shining']; cf. Song 6:10 בָּרָה֙ כַּֽחַמָּ֔ה "bright as the sun" [NIV]) (Eaton 1968, 605). So NIV and CSB: "radiant"; CEV: "shine brightly." It could be that a double-meaning is intended: "flawless" (with an association with "brightness").
Giving light (מְאִירַת): an action that causes something to emit or to reflect light; ≈ associated with well-being and wisdom" (SDBH). Light to the eyes indicates renewed life and energy. In this sense, it is synonymous with משיבת נפש in the previous verse. Clines argues, on the other hand, that a description which is so synonymous with משיבת נפש would be unnecessary. "It seems preferable therefore to follow the literal meaning of the words, especially since the law is elsewhere often called a light" (cf. Ps 119:105; Prov 6:23) (Clines 1974, 4-5).

vv. 10-11[ ]

יִרְאַת יְהוָה: Fearing YHWH is the essence of covenant obedience (cf. Deut 10:12-13; cf. the reference to the faithful as יראי יהוה [e.g., Ps 118]). Thus, "the fear of YHWH" is used here as a metonymy for the requirements of the covenant—"the religion commanded by Yahweh, a synonym for his תורה" (Eaton 1968, 605). The phrase "fear of YHWH" refers to the fear which people experience because of YHWH (an objective genitive). Hence, "fear of YHWH" = "fearing YHWH."
Eaton also argues that "The description of this revelation ['the fear of YHWH'] as טהורה may well denote a sun-like brilliance, so that we should render 'clear-shining' or 'radiant' (AV, RSV) rather than 'clean' or 'holy' (Gunkel heilig, LXX άγνός, Jerome mundus). The Aramaic טיהרא is used of a bright sky and of midday (M. Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumim..., p. 530), while in Hebrew טהר denotes 'clear brilliance' in Exod. xxiv. 10 and טֳהָר means 'lustre' in Ps lxxxix. 45... If then the psalm here pictures the revealed religion of Yahweh, the sum of his commandments as a radiant, enlightening sun, the appropriateness of the following עומדת לעד now appears: this light of revelation is as constant and enduring as the sun which Yahweh has created to operate so unfailingly" (Eaton 1968, 605). It could be that 'ethically clean' (HALOT, cf. SDBH; cf. Ps 12:7 and Pr 15:26) is the primary meaning, but that the quality of 'radiance' is also evoked.
מִשְׁפְּטֵי: "God’s mišpāṭîm are the individual commandments as well as the summary of the entire law" (TDOT 1998, 94). Cf. Ex. 21:1.
The waw phrases in v. 11 ("gold and much pure gold... honey and virgin honey from the honeycomb") indicate addition: "they are better than gold and [they are even better than] much pure gold..." In English, the waw is better translated as "even." So e.g., ESV: "More to be desired are they than gold, even much fine gold..." (so NLT, NET; cf. KJV "yea"; cf. NIV: "than gold, than much pure gold").
On the definite article of הַנֶּחֱמָדִים, see the note in the Grammar layer.
SDBH defines נפת as "virgin honey, dripping straight from the honeycomb; ≈ regarded as very desirable food of high quality." The 'honeycomb' is "associated with sweetness and health" (SDBH).

v. 12[ ]

עֶבֶד:

נזהר: Modern translations render this as "is warned" (KJV, NIV, ESV, cf. NLT, CEV, GNT, NET, NEB, LUT, HFA, ELB, EÜ, ZÜR).
- So BDB, HALOT, DCH, SDBH. SDBH defines it as "= process by which someone becomes aware of something (usually bad) that is going to happen, or something one should do to prevent something (usually bad) from happening; usually refers to a mediator making known what God has said or implied; ≈ wise people take these things seriously whereas foolish people ignore them."
- Others (e.g., Eaton 1968) have argued, however, that נזהר comes from a different root that means 'illuminate' (cf. Dan 12:3 וְהַמַּשְׂכִּלִים יַזְהִרוּ כְּזֹהַר הָרָקִיעַ; Ezek 8:2 כְּמַרְאֵה־זֹ֖הַר; cf. Aramaic זהר e.g., Old Syriac of Matt 13:43 ܗܝܕܝܢ ܙܕܝ̈ܩܐ ܢܙܗܪܘܢ ܐܝܟ ܫܡܫܐ). As with טהורה in v. 10, there could be a double meaning here. Cf. Hossfeld: "Ihre Belehrung kann sowohl erleuchten also auch warnen" (Hossfeld 1993, 134).
As Jenni notes, the suffix in בהם points back to the phrase משפטי יהוה and the preposition is a beth of realization --> beth of communication (Jenni 1992,169-170; cf. Pss 78:2; 119:46).
The word עקב is usually translated into English as "reward" (NIV, NLT, ESV, NET, NEB, NJB, JPS85, GNT, CEV); so DCH.

vv. 13-14[ ]

Milgrom summarizes the significance of vv. 13-14 as follows: "The psalmist has extolled the keeping of the Law for its manifold benefits (vv. 8-12) but he now asks the rhetorical question: who can know the entire law and thereby prevent inadvertencies? Furthermore, beyond the scope of law and human wisdom lies the unchartable realm of the hidden, the unconscious sins. In this matter, he can only turn to God and implore that he be cleared. Finally, as regards deliberate sins, man requires restraint in the face of temptation and passion and for this he asks divine aid. Having covered the entire range of human evil, the psalmist's conclusion follows irrefutably: 'then I shall be perfect'" (Milgrom 1967, 121).
The preposition מן in the phrases מנסתרות and מפשע רב probably indicates detachment. Literally: "be free (in terms of guilt) from" (cf. Num 5:31 וְנִקָּ֥ה הָאִ֖ישׁ מֵעָוֹ֑ן; Job 10:14 וּ֝מֵעֲוֹנִ֗י לֹ֣א תְנַקֵּֽנִי).
With the words שְׁגִיאוֹת ,נִּסְתָּרוֹת, and זֵּדִים, "The psalmist enumerates 3 categories of wrongdoing according to the criterion of intention" (Milgrom 1967, 120). According to Milgrom, the first category (נִּסְתָּרוֹת) refers to "acts of which the doer is unconscious and which are sinful" (cf. 1QS 5:11-12), the second category (שְׁגִיאוֹת) refers to "acts of which the doer is conscious but whose sinfulness he learns afterwards," and the third category (זֵּדִים) refers to "presumptuous sins" (1967, 120; cf. Clines 1974, 7).
For זֵּדִים, see The Meaning of זֵדִים in Ps 19:14.
אֵיתָם:^[2]

The verb נקה refers to an "action by which humans or deities pronounce or consider a person innocent or cleared of wrongdoing and freed from punishment" (SDBH).
On the phrase חשך מן, cf. 1 Sam 25:39—בָּר֣וּךְ יְהוָ֡ה אֲשֶׁ֣ר רָב֩ אֶת־רִ֨יב חֶרְפָּתִ֜י מִיַּ֣ד נָבָ֗ל וְאֶת־עַבְדּוֹ֙ חָשַׂ֣ךְ מֵֽרָעָ֔ה
The phrase פשע רב is translated as "great transgression" (KJV, NIV, ESV, NEB), "great sin" (NLT), "grave sin" (NJB), "grave offense" (JPS85), and "blatant rebellion" (NET). According to TDOT, "pešaʿ refers to an outrageous, imprudent act disruptive of the community on both a small and a large scale and one that could be viewed with enormous severity in connection with the legal sphere, international law, and especially in the relationship to Yahweh as the God who made his people into Israel" (TDOT 2003, 143).

v. 15[ ]

The phrase היה לרצון usually refers to "(divine) acceptance, oft. of sacrifice or of people offering a sacrifice to Y[HWH]" (DCH). Just as a sacrificial animal with any defect was not acceptable to YHWH (Lev 22:20 לֹ֥א לְרָצֹ֖ון יִהְיֶ֥ה) but only those animals which were 'blameless' (Lev 22:21, תָּמִ֤ים יִֽהְיֶה֙ לְרָצֹ֔ון), so the psalmist, now that YHWH has made him 'blameless' (איתם, v. 14b), can offer words which are acceptable to YHWH.

Cf. Hossfeld: "Die Widmung 15 verquickt Opferterminologie... mit Bezeichnungen für den ganzen Psalm... zu einer Weiheformel mit spiritualisierendem Kultverständnis" (Hossfeld 1993, 134).

The preposition ל in the phrase לרצון is a lamed of reevaluation (cf. Jenni 2000, 40, rubric 133). Lit.: "let the words of my mouth... become acceptance" >> "be acceptable".

Verbal Semantics Chart[ ]

For legend, click "Expand" to the right

	Tense	Aspect	Reference point movement	Modality
Definition	A situation's location in time	Internal temporal constituency of a situation as portrayed	Whether or not the expected reference point in the discourse is updated after the situation.	Distinguishing between indicative, volitional and other forms of modality, as determined by morphology; word order; particles; context
Options	Relative: a situation's location in time relative to a reference point Absolute: a situation's location in time relative to the moment of speech	Continuous Habitual/iterative Stative	Expected movement: usually perfective No expected movement: usually imperfective	indicative jussive imperative cohortative wish purpose/result past (conditional) possible probable interrogative
Symbol

For steps to determine relative tense and reference point movement click "Expand" to the right:

				Do we expect reference point to move?
After reference point (Posterior)
	Imperative	What next?	Posterior (relative future)	Yes	⇐
	Yiqtol	What next? What now?	Posterior (relative future Simultaneous (relative imperfective present)	Yes	⇐
	Weqatal			Yes	⇐
	Weyiqtol			No	⇍
	Wayyiqtol			No	⇍
At reference point (Simultaneous)
	Yiqtol	What now?	Simultaneous (relative imperfective present)	No	⇍
	Participle
	Weyiqtol
	Infinitive
Before reference point (Anterior)
	Qatal	What next? What now?	Anterior (relative past) Simultaneous (relative imperfect present)	Yes	⇐
	Wayyiqtol	What next? What now?		No	⇍

Bibliography[ ]

Baethgen, Friedrich. 1904. Die Psalmen. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht.

Brockelman, Carl. 1928. Hebräische Syntax. Niemeyer.

Clines, D. J. A. 1974. “The Tree of Knowledge and the Law of Yahweh (Psalm XIX).” Vetus Testamentum 24, no. 1: 8–14.

Craigie, Peter C. 1983. Psalms 1–50. WBC 19. Waco, TX: Word.

Demsky, Aaron. 2005. “Shulgi the Runner: Sumerian - Talmudic Affinities.” In “An Experienced Scribe Who Neglects Nothing”: Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Honor of Jacob Klein, 85–97.

Diggle, James (ed.). 2021. The Cambridge Greek Lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Eaton, J. H. 1968. “Some Questions of Philology and Exegesis in the Psalms.” The Journal of Theological Studies 19, no. 2: 603–609.

Gesenius, W. Donner, H. Rüterswörden, U. Renz, J. Meyer, R. (eds.). 2013. Hebräisches und aramäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament. 18. Auflage Gesamtausgabe. Berlin: Springer.

Hillers, Delbert R. 1969. Covenant: The History of a Biblical Idea. Baltimore: The John Hopkins Press.

Hossfeld, Frank-Lothar, and Erich Zenger. 1993. Die Psalmen I: Psalm 1–50. Neue Echter Bibel. Würzburg: Echter.

Hupfeld, Hermann. 1855. Die Psalmen. Vol. 1. Gotha: Friedrich Andreas Perthes.

Jenni, Ernst. 1992. Die Hebräischen Präpositionen Band 1: Die Präposition Beth. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer.

Jenni, Ernst. 2000. Die Hebräischen Präpositionen Band 3: Die Präposition Lamed. Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer.

Kraus, Hans-Joachim. 1988. Psalms 1-59 : A Commentary. Minneapolis : Augsburg Pub. House.

Mena, Andrea K. 2012. "The Semantic Potential of עַל in Genesis, Psalms, and Chronicles." MA Thesis. Stellenbosch University.

Milgrom, Jacob. 1967. “The Cultic ‮שגגה‬ and Its Influence in Psalms and Job.” The Jewish Quarterly Review 58, no. 2: 115–125.

Nakata, Ichiro. 2022. “A Thought on Ṣīt Šamši and Ereb Šamši in Akkadian.” Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society Special Supplement. (November):1–6.

Theodoret. 2001. Commentary on the Psalms. Translated by Robert C. Hill. The Fathers of the church, a new translation v. 101-102. Washington, D.C: Catholic University of America Press.

Waltke, Bruce K., J. M. Houston, and Erika Moore. 2010. The Psalms as Christian Worship: A Historical Commentary. Grand Rapids, Mich: William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.

Willgren, David. “Why Psalms 1–2 Are Not to Be Considered a Preface to the ‘Book’ of Psalms.” ZAW 130, no. 3: 384–397.

Footnotes[ ]

↑ Mena, by contrast, categorizes this occurrence of על as "To, the [trajector] is directed towards the end goal, which is the [landmark]" (2012, 122); cf. LXX εως.
↑ See also the Venn diagram for תמם.

[1] Mena, by contrast, categorizes this occurrence of על as "To, the [trajector] is directed towards the end goal, which is the [landmark]" (2012, 122); cf. LXX εως.

[2] See also the Venn diagram for תמם.

[1]

[2]

Psalm 19 Semantics

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