The Meaning of עגלות in Ps 46:10

Introduction

The MT of Ps 46:10b lists several items that YHWH plans to destroy in his engagement with the hostile nations and kingdoms:

קֶ֣שֶׁת יְ֭שַׁבֵּר וְקִצֵּ֣ץ חֲנִ֑ית עֲ֝גָל֗וֹת יִשְׂרֹ֥ף בָּאֵֽשׁ׃

If the first two terms—bow(s) and spear(s)—are straightforward, then the third one, עֲגָלוֹת, is less clear and causes difficulties in translation and interpretation. This in turn is reflected in ancient and modern translations, among which three main approaches to the issue can be identified:

• Option 1 is to approach this as a lexical issue and take the MT's עֲגָלוֹת as meaning (uniquely in the Hebrew Bible) chariots or war wagons, i.e., “He breaks the bow and cuts the spear in two; He burns the chariots with fire” (NASB95).
  • cf. ERV; JPS1917; KJ21; NGÜ; EÜ; DHH; RST; UKR; BULG, etc.

• Option 2 is to understand this as a textual issue, follow the LXX, which has θυρεοὺς, “bucklers, small shields” (cf. Targ.; Vulg.), and re-vocalize the form עֲגָלוֹת as עֲגִלוֹת. Cf. “He breaks the bow and shatters the spear; he burns the shields with fire” (NRSV).
  • cf. GNT; NIV; NET; NFS; NRT; GNB; PDV, etc.

• Option 3 (which is less popular) is to read MT's עֲגָלוֹת as transport wagons as per traditional lexical interpretation. Cf. "... breaking the bow, snapping the spear, consigning wagons to the flames" (JPS1985; cf. "war-wagons" [NLV], which, admittedly, are unclear).

Argument Maps

Option 1: עֲגָלוֹת as "chariots"

Many modern translations prefer to render עֲגָלוֹת as “chariots” (e.g., NASB95; ERV; JPS1917; KJ21; NGÜ; EÜ; DHH; RST; UKR; BULG, etc.). Commenting on Ps 46:9[10], for example, J.-H. Kraus explains, "The weapons and implements of war are broken by Yahweh. For the war chariots equipped with iron plating, cf. M. Noth GI (1956³) 133. According to ancient custom, chariots and weapons taken as booty are burned (Josh. 11:6, 9; Isa. 9:4; Hos. 2:20; Exod. 39:9f.)."

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[“War Chariots”]: עֲגָלֹות in Ps 46:10b signifies "war chariots" (e.g., NASB95; ERV; JPS1917; KJ21; NGÜ; EÜ; DHH; RST; UKR; BULG). #dispreferred
 + <Support from Ancient Witnesses>: The Peshitta and Jerome (iuxta Hebr.) render the word as "chariots." #dispreferred
  + [Support from Ancient Witnesses]: Peshitta: ܘܡܪ̈ܟܒܬܐ; Jerome (iuxta Hebr.): hastam plaustra. #dispreferred
 - <Unattested Meaning>: The word is not attested with the meaning “war chariot” or “war transport” in Biblical Hebrew (cf. BDB :L:; HALOT :L:; DCH :L:; TDOT :D:).
 - <Chariots in Biblical Hebrew>: The word “war transport/chariot” is usually designated with רֶכֶב or מֶרְכָּבָה (Barthélemy 2005, 276 :M:; Goldingay 2007, 65, n. 5 :C:; BDB :L:; HALOT :L:; DCH :L:; TDOT :D:).
  + [Chariots in Biblical Hebrew]: E.g., Exod 14:25; 15:4; Josh 11:6, 9, etc. See, in particular, God's threat in Mic 5:10: “I will destroy your horses from among you and demolish your chariots/מַרְכְּבֹתֶיךָ."
 - <עֲגָלֹות in Hebrew>: עֲגָלֹות usually means “carts/transport wagons” (BDB :L:; HALOT :L:; DCH :L:; TDOT :D:).
  + <Etymology>: “Because Hebrew distinguishes between the chariot drawn by horses ... on the one hand, and the transport wagon drawn by oxen on the other..., one may assume that in addition to the root 'gl the resonance with 'eglh, "heifer," and 'egel, "calf," also played a role in the choice of names.” (TDOT, 451 :D:)
  + <Wagons>: The word in question is well-attested in Biblical Hebrew. It appears x25, representing three categories of wagons.
   + [Wagons]: 1.) transport wagons (e.g., Gen 45:19, 21, 27; 46:5, wherein it signifies Egyptian wagons supplied to Joseph’s brothers to relocate their families to Egypt; cf. ANEP, no. 167); 2.) wagons used to transport cultic objects (e.g., the furnishings of the wilderness tabernacle: Num 7:3, 5, 7, 8; and the ark of the covenant: 1 Sam 6:7, 8, 10, 11, 14; 2 Sam 6:3=1 Chr 13:7); and 3.) harvest wagons (Isa 28:23–29, Gese 1962, 419, 421f :A:; TDOT, 453-544 :D:; Am 2:13).
 + <Destruction by Fire 1>: Ps 46:10 fits the method of destruction of chariots elsewhere, i.e., by fire (Josh 11:6, 9). #dispreferred
  + [Destruction by Fire 1]: "The Lord said to Joshua, “Do not be afraid of them, because by this time tomorrow I will hand all of them, slain, over to Israel. You are to hamstring their horses and burn their chariots (מַרְכְּבֹתֵיהֶם).” (Josh 11:6, cf. 9). #dispreferred
   <_<Terminology in Joshua 11>: The terms used in Josh 11:6, 9 are not comparable to those in Ps 46:10.
 + <Destruction by Fire 2>: Overall, the destruction of weapons here reflects the fate/transformation of weapons and other items associated with war elsewhere. (Briggs and Briggs 1906, 396 :C:). #dispreferred
  + [Destruction by Fire 2]: E.g., Hos 2:20; Is 2:2-4; 9:4, Mic 4:1-4. #dispreferred
 + <Context>: The reading “chariots” fits the context. #dispreferred 
  + <Implements of War>: The first two items signify implements of war, i.e., “bows” and “spears,” and עֲגָלֹות as "chariots" would signify means of transportation in war. #dispreferred 

Option 2: reading the difficult lexeme as "shields"

Following the LXX, many modern translations render the problematic term as “shields” (e.g., NRSV; cf. GNT; NIV; NET; NFS; NRT; GNB; PDV, etc.). Given the LXX (cf. Targ.; Vulg.), some scholars suggest re-vocalizing the form עֲגָלוֹת as עֲגִלוֹת/“round shields,” a word which is attested in later Hebrew and Aramaic. Taking this approach to the difficult עֲגָלוֹת in Psalm 46 and explaining the material composition of shields, M. Dahood, for example, notes, “Shields were often made of leather stretched over a wooden frame (like the Roman scutum), or of wickerwork. The leather surface had to be regularly oiled to guard against cracking (II Sam i 21; Isa xxi 5)." Making distinction between the types of weapons envisaged in the Psalm, J. Goldingay, in turn, explains that v. 10b first addresses the destruction of "the offensive weapons of the individual soldier" (i.e., bows and spears), and then speaks of "the soldier’s means of defense" (i.e., shields). Since fighting without shields is not possible, the fighting in question will cease.

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["Shields"]: The word in Ps 46:10 signifies "shields" (e.g., NRSV; GNT; NIV; NET; NFS; NRT; GNB; PDV).#dispreferred
 + <Ancient Witnesses>: The reading "shields" in Psalm 46 finds support in the LXX and Targum. #dispreferred
  + [Ancient Witnesses]: The LXX: θυρεοὺς; Targ.: עגילין. Note that Vulgate always translates עֲגָלֹות as plaustrum, but here it follows the LXX with scuta ("shields") (TDOT, 455 :D:).#dispreferred
 + <To re-vocalize the MT>: The MT can read "shields" if re-vocalized as עֲגִלוֹת/“round shields” (HALOT :L:; Baethgen 1904 :C:; deClaissé-Walford et al. 2014, 422 :C:; Barthélemy 2005, 276 :M:). #dispreferred
   <_<עֲגִלוֹת in Hebrew>: The word עֲגִלוֹת is not attested in Biblical Hebrew; only in later Hebrew and Aramaic (HALOT :L:; deClaissé-Walford et al. 2014: 422 :C:). Cf. 1QM vi:15, which states that "the horsemen were armed with mgny ‘glh, 'round shields'; cf. Yadin, The Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness, p. 121" (Dahood 1966, 281 :C:; cf. Barthélemy 2005, 276 :M:).
 + <Round shields>: Round shields were in use as early as the second millennium BCE. #dispreferred
  + [Iconography]: In the bas-reliefs at Medinet-Habou “peoples of the sea” are depicted fighting against Ramses III with round shields (Barthélemy 2005, 276 :M:).#dispreferred
 + <Destruction by Fire>: Ps 46:10 fits the method of destruction of shields elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible.#dispreferred
  + [Destruction by Fire]: E.g., Ezek 39:9: "Then those who live in the towns of Israel will go out and use the weapons for fuel and burn them up—the small and large shields (וּמָגֵן וְצִנָּה), the bows and arrows, the war clubs and spears..." (cf. Ps 76:3; cf. the destruction of weapons here also reflects the fate of weapons in Hos 2:20; Is 2:2-4; 9:4; Mic 4:1-4, Briggs and Briggs 1906, 396 :C:).#dispreferred
   <_<Different Terms>
 + <Destruction of Shields and Spears>: The words “shields” and "spears" appear together in contexts of warfare and destruction of weapons. #dispreferred 
  + [Destruction of Shields and Spears]: E.g., in the context of warfare: "... not a shield (מָגֵן) or spear was seen among forty thousand in Israel" (Jdg 5:8); destruction of weapons after combat: "Then those who live in the towns of Israel will go out and use the weapons for fuel and burn them up—the small and large shields (וּמָגֵן וְצִנָּה), the bows and arrows, the war clubs and spears..." (cf. Ezek 39:9). #dispreferred
   <_<Different Terms>: The terms used in Jdg 5:8 (מָגֵן, רֹמַח) and Ezek 39:9 (בְּנֶשֶׁק וּמָגֵן וְצִנָּה בְּקֶשֶׁת וּבְחִצִּים וּבְמַקֵּל יָד וּבְרֹמַח) are not comparable to those in Ps 46:10. 
 + <Context>: Following two items which signify implements of war (i.e., “bows” and “spears”), shields can fit the context well. (Barthélemy 2005, 276 :M:). #dispreferred 

Option 3: עֲגָלוֹת as "transport wagons" (preferred)

Finally, the MT's עֲגָלוֹת can be understood as “transport wagons” or “food carts” as per traditional lexical interpretation. JPS (1985), for example, reads v. 10b as “breaking the bow, snapping the spear, consigning wagons to the flames.” Cf. NLV, which renders the verse as, “He breaks the bow and cuts the spear in two. He burns the war-wagons with fire.”

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["Carts/Wagons"]: עֲגָלֹות in Ps 46:10 signifies "carts/wagons" (e.g., JPS (1985); NLV; Craigie 1983, 342 :C:).
 + <עֲגָלֹות in Hebrew>: עֲגָלֹות usually means “carts/transport wagons” (BDB :L:; HALOT :L:; DCH :L:; TDOT :D:).
  + <Wagons>: The word in question is well-attested in Biblical Hebrew. It appears x25, representing three categories of wagons.
   + [Wagons]: 1.) transport wagons (e.g., Gen 45:19, 21, 27; 46:5, wherein it signifies Egyptian wagons supplied to Joseph’s brothers to relocate their families to Egypt; cf. ANEP, no. 167); 2.) wagons used to transport cultic objects (e.g., the furnishings of the wilderness tabernacle: Num 7:3, 5, 7, 8; and the ark of the covenant: 1 Sam 6:7, 8, 10, 11, 14; 2 Sam 6:3=1 Chr 13:7); and 3.) harvest wagons (Isa 28:23–29, Gese 1962, 419, 421f :A:; TDOT, 453-544 :D:; Am 2:13).
 + <Context>: The reading of עֲגָלֹות as “wagons” fits the context of warfare . 
   + <Food supplies>: "Carts/wagons" would, contextually, signify wagons carrying food supplies. 
    + <Importance of Food Supply>: In military campaigns, food supplies would have been needed to keep troops energized for combat. Notably, HB and ANE texts highlight two royal duties: a.) provision of food for subjects (civilians and military) and b.) protection of subjects in times of war.
     + [Food Supplies]: E.g., 1 Sam 8:11–18; ANE royal inscriptions. Hence, many Neo-Assyrian monarchs bragged about their generous provisions for their armies while they were "on the road," campaigning, and saw the fulfillment of this duty as a marker of good governance/kingship.
   + <Cultic Images>: Carts/wagons" would, contextually, signify wagons carrying cultic images. Hence, in Ps 46:10, YHWH could be viewed attacking not just his human opponents but their divine patrons as well.
    + [Cultic Images]: In ANE and ancient Israel, nations at war carried images of their gods into battle (e.g., images of Seth in Egypt; the ark of the covenant in Israel: cf. Num 10:35‒36; 14:41‒45; Josh 6:4‒15; 1 Sam 4; 2 Sam 11:11).   
   + <Spoils of War>: "Carts/wagons" would, contextually, signify wagons carrying spoils of war back to the homeland. 
    + <Success and Spoils of War>: The success of military engagement in ANE was measured by the amount of booty collected at the end.
    + [Spoils of War]: E.g., Gen 34:25–29; Jdg 7:21; cf. 8:21‒27; 2 Sam 8:8; 12:30; 2 Kgs 7:14‒16; 1 Sam 31:8‒10; 2 Chr 20:24-25 (Elgavish 2002, 249-251 :A:). Notably, a later text speaks of carts/עֲגָלוֹת used precisely for this purpose (Judith 15:11).
   + <Destruction of Enemies>: "Carts/wagons" would, contextually and metaphorically, signify the destruction of the hostile enemies themselves. 
    + <Defeated Enemy Forces>: In ANE and HB war texts, agricultural imagery was used to signify defeated enemy forces, particularly when mass killings were in view (Samet 2012, 2–14 :A:). 
     + [Destruction of Enemies]: In Am 2:13, God declares that he is either “weighted down” beneath his erring people "as a wagon" is weighted down when filled with sheaves” (NKJV) or he will crush them “as a cart crushes when loaded with grain” (cf. ESV). In either case, judging his people, God prepares to destroy them (vv. 14-16), comparing them to "sheaves of cut grain" (cf. Jer 9:22) on a harvest cart, a well-attested metaphor in the ancient rhetoric of warring.
 + <Method of Destruction>: עֲגָלֹות/“wagons” can be burned with fire.
  + [1 Sam 6:14]: Cf. 1 Sam 6:14, wherein they, as “wooden carts,” are taken apart and burned.
  + [Punic Inscription]: Cf. a Punic inscription from Carthage, which contains the expression 'glt 's, i.e., "wooden wagon" (TDOT, 451 :D:).
  + <Destruction by Fire in War>: Objects other than weapons were also destroyed, by fire, after war. 
   + [Destruction by Fire in War]: Isa 9:5: “Every warrior’s boot used in battle and every garment rolled in blood will be destined for burning, will be fuel for the fire.”

Conclusion

In view of the arguments presented above, עֲגָלוֹת as “wagons” should be viewed as a preferred reading for Psalm 46: 1.) this term requires no emendation of the MT; 2.) it makes sense contextually; and 3.) it creates a more textured reading of YHWH's engagement with his opponents. To reiterate, given the context of warfare in Psalm 46, עֲגָלוֹת could be viewed as transport wagons to carry provisions, which would have been of “critical importance for the retinue of any army.”

• Thus, in military campaigns, food supplies would have been needed to keep troops well-nourished for military engagement. Given the mention of hostile kingdoms in Psalm 46, it is noteworthy that HB and ANE texts highlight two royal duties: a.) provision of food for subjects (civilians and military) and b.) protection of subjects in times of war (cf. 1 Sam 8:11–18; cf. ANE royal inscriptions). Given the scope of YHWH's devastation in the earth (universal) and his decisive dealings with the nations, v. 10 could have in view the destruction of their implements of war (military might) and food supplies (sustenance). Metonymically, these two would signify YHWH's comprehensive blow to the hostile nations and their royal leaders.

• Moreover, given the usage of עֲגָלוֹת as wagons for cultic objects in the Hebrew Bible, attacking עֲגָלוֹת, YHWH, in the psalm, might be attacking not just his human opponents but their divine patrons as well.

• Furthermore, in a successful campaign, עֲגָלוֹת would have been needed to transport plundered resources back to the homeland. Attacking the nations' עֲגָלוֹת YHWH signals that he holds his people's interests at heart on every front, including economic, i.e. they will not be subject to despoliation.

• Additionally, in a poetic text on war and destruction, עֲגָלוֹת, as agricultural carts, could create another, more menacing layer of meaning. Since in ANE and HB war texts, agricultural imagery was used to signify defeated enemy forces, particularly when mass killings were in view, in Ps 46:10, God could be viewed as destroying not only the nations' ammunition/weaponry, but the nations themselves.

As noted by many, poetic language could be fluid and multivalent, opening itself to many interpretative possibilities. Given the biblical usage of עֲגָלוֹת and its position in Psalm 46, it could invite a series of such possibilities. All in all, in a Psalm addressing war and destruction, the straightforward reading of MT's עֲגָלוֹת as wagons is more attractive and preferable.

Research

Translations

Ancient

• LXX
  • τόξον συντρίψει καὶ συγκλάσει ὅπλον καὶ θυρεοὺς κατακαύσει ἐν πυρί
    • "he will shatter bow and break armor, and he will burn shields with fire." (NETS)
• Aquila
  • τόξ(ο̣ν̣) συ̣ν̣τ̣ρίψει (καὶ) κατακόψει̣ δόρυ ἀμάξας ἐμπρήσει ἐν̣ πυρ̣ί̣.
• Symmachus
  • τόξον ἐ̣πέκλασεν̣ καὶ) κατέκοψε λογχας ἀμάξας κατέκαυ̣σεν πυρί.
• Peshitta
  • ܡܒܛܠ ܩܪ̈ܒܐ ܡܢ ܣܘ̈ܦܝܗܿ ܕܐܪܥܐ܂ ܩܫܬ̈ܬܐ ܡܬܒܪ ܘܡܬܒܪ ܢܝ̈ܙܟܐ܂ ܘܡܪ̈ܟܒܬܐ ܡܘܩܕ ܒܢܘܪܐ܂
• Jerome (IUXTA Hebr)
  • arcum confringet et concidet hastam plaustra conburet igni
• Jerome (IUXTA LXX)
  • arcum conteret et coníringet arma et scuta conburet in igne
    • "he will shatter bow and break armor, and he will burn shields with fire."
• Targum
  • קשתא יתבר ויתרערע/ויתרע#1#/ מורניתא תריסיא עגילין יוקיד בנורא׃
    • "he breaks the bow, he shatters the spear, he burns the round shields with fire."

Modern

reading עֲגָלוֹת as "chariots"

• he breaketh the bow, and cutteth the spear in sunder; he burneth the chariots in the fire. (ERV)
• he breaks the bow and shatters the spear; he burns the chariots with fire. (ESV)
• He breaketh the bow, and cutteth the spear in sunder; He burneth the chariots in the fire. (JPS1917)
• He breaketh the bow and cutteth the spear in sunder; He burneth the chariot with fire. (KJ21)
• He makes wars to cease to the end of the earth; He breaks the bow and cuts the spear in two; He burns the chariots with fire. (KJ21)
• He breaks the bow and cuts the spear in two; He burns the chariots with fire. (NASB1995)
• He breaks the bow and cuts the spear in two; He burns the chariot in the fire. (NKJV)
• the bow he shivereth, And the spear He hath cut asunder, Chariots he doth burn with fire. (YLT)
• Pfeil und Bogen bricht er entzwei, er zerschmettert Speere und verbrennt Streitwagen im Feuer. (NGÜ)
• Den Bogen zerbricht er, die Lanze zerschlägt er; Streitwagen verbrennt er im Feuer. (EÜ)
• Die Kampfbogen bricht er entzwei, er zersplittert die Speere und verbrennt die Kriegswagen. (HFA)
• Il brise l'arc et rompt la lance, Il consume par le feu les chars de guerre. (NVSR)
• il casse l'arc, brise la lance, il incendie les chariots. (TOB)
• il l’a brisé et il a rompu la lance, il a consumé au feu tous les chars de guerre. (BDS)
• il a brisé l’arc et rompu la lance, il a détruit par le feu les chars de guerre. (S21)
• ha roto los arcos, ha hecho pedazos las lanzas, ¡ha prendido fuego a los carros de guerra! (DHH)
• сокрушил лук и переломил копье, колесницы сжег огнем. (RST)
• ламає Він лука й торощить списа, палить огнем колесниці! (UKR)
• Строшава лък и строшава копие; Изгаря с огън колесници. (BULG)
• строши лък и пречупи копие, колесници с огън изгори. (BOB)

ambiguous: reading עֲגָלוֹת as "chariots" or "war wagons"

• breaking the bow, snapping the spear, consigning wagons to the flames. (JPS1985)
• He breaks the bow and cuts the spear in two. He burns the war-wagons with fire. (NLV)
• der Bogen zerbricht, Spieße zerschlägt und Wagen mit Feuer verbrennt. (LU17)
• Bogen zerbricht und Speere zerschlägt, Wagen mit Feuer verbrennt. (ELB)
• der Bogen zerbricht, Speere zerschlägt und Wagen im Feuer verbrennt. (ZÜR)
• il brise l'arc, il rompt la lance, il met le feu aux chars. (NBS)
• que quiebra el arco, corta la lanza y quema los carros en el fuego. (RVR1995)
• ha quebrado los arcos, ha destrozado las lanzas, ha arrojado los carros al fuego. (NVI)
• Que quiebra el arco, que parte la lanza, Y quema los carros en el fuego. (BTX4)

reading the term as "shields"

• He breaks the arrows, shatters the spears, and burns the shields. (CEV)
• he breaks bows, destroys spears, and sets shields on fire. (GNT)
• He breaks the bow and snaps the spear; he burns the shields with fire. (NLT)
• He breaks the bow, he snaps the spear, shields he burns in the fire. (NJB)
• he shatters the bow and breaks the spear; he burns the shields with fire. (NET)
• He breaks the bow and shatters the spear; he burns the shields with fire. (NIV)
• he breaks the bow and shatters the spear; he burns the shields with fire. (NRSV)
• die Bogen zerbricht er, die Spieße zerschlägt er, die Schilde verbrennt er. (GNB)
• il brise les arcs, il détruit les lances, il met le feu aux boucliers. (PDV)
• il brise les arcs, il détruit les lances, il met le feu aux boucliers. (NFS)
• ломает лук, расщепляет копье и сжигает дотла щиты. (NRT)

Secondary Literature

Altmann, Peter. 2014. “Feast and Famine: Theoretical and Comparative Perspectives on Lack as a Backdrop for Plenty in the Hebrew Bible.” Pages 149–178. In Peter Altmann and J. Fu (eds), Feasting in the Archaeology and Texts of the Hebrew Bible and Ancient Near East. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.

Barthélemy, Dominique. 2005. Critique Textuelle de l’Ancien Testament. vol. 4: Psaumes. Fribourg, Switzerland: Academic Press.

Bach, Robert. 1971. “... Der Bogen zerbricht, Spiesse zerschlägt und Wagen mit Feuer verbrennt.” Pages 13–26. In Hans Walter Wolff (ed.), Probleme biblischer Theologie. Munich: Kaisere.

Botterweck, G. Johannes, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry, eds. 1974–2006. Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, 15 vols. Translated by John T. Willis et al. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.

Briggs, Charles Augustus and Emilie Grace Briggs. 1907. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Psalms. vol. 2. ICC. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.

Brown, Francis, Samuel R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs. 1906. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. Oxford: Clarendon.

Craigie, Peter C., and Marvin E. Tate. 1983. 2nd ed. Psalms 1–50. vol. 19. WBC. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

Dahood, Mitchell. 1966. Psalms. Vol. 1. Anchor Bible Commentary. New York: Doubleday.

DeClaissé-Walford, Nancy, Rolf A. Jacobson, and Beth LaNeel Tanner. 2014. The Book of Psalms. NICOT. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.

Delitzsch, Franz. 1883. Biblical Commentary on the Psalms. vol. 1. Translated by Eaton David. New York, NY: Funk and Wagnalls.

Elgavish, David. 2002. “The Division of the Spoils of War in the Bible and in the Ancient Near East.” Zeitschrift für altorientalische und biblische Rechtsgeschichte 8: 247‒73.

Fales, Frederick Mario. 1990. “Grain Reserves, Daily Rations, and the Size of the Assyrian Army: A Quantitative Study.” State Archives of Assyria Bulletin 4: 23–34.

Fales, Frederick Mario, and Monica Rigo. 2014. “Everyday Life and Food Practices in Assyrian Military Encampments.” Pages 413–37. In Paleonutrition and Food Practices in the Ancient Near East: Towards a Multidisciplinary Approach.ed. Lucio Milano. HANE/M 24. Padova: S.A.R.G.O.N.

Gese, Harmut. 1963. “Kleine Beitriige zum Verstiindnis des Amosbuches.” Vetus Testamentum 12: 417–438.

Goldingay, John. 2007. Psalms 42–89. vol. 2. BCOT. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.

Hengstenberg, Ernst Wilhelm. 1863. Commentary on the Psalms. vol. 2. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.

Koehler, Ludwig, Walter Baumgartner, and Johann J. Stamm. 2001. The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. 2 vols. Translated and edited under the supervision of Mervyn E. J. Richardson. Leiden: Brill.

Kraus, Hans-Joachim. 1972. Psalmen 1–63. BKT XV/1. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag.

Miglio, Adam E. 2020. “Metaphor and Meaning in Psalm 23: Provisions for ‘a Table in the Presence of my Enemies’,” in Adam E. Miglio, Caryn A. Reeder, Joshua T. Walton, and Kenneth C. Way (eds), For Us, but Not to Us Essays on Creation, Covenant, and Context in Honor of John H. Walton. Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications: 245–253.

Samet, Nili. 2012. “On Agricultural Imagery in Biblical Descriptions of Catastrophes.” Journal of Ancient Judaism 3: 2–14.

Taylor, Richard A. trans., 2020. The Syriac Peshiṭṭ ta Bible with English Translation: Psalms. ed. by George A. Kiraz and Joseph Bali. The Antioch Bible/ṢṢurath Kthobh. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias.

VanGemeren, Willem A. 1997. New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. 5 vols. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

Weiser, Artur. 1962. The Psalms. OTL. Trans. by Herbert Hartwell. Philadelphia, PA: Westminster Press.

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