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Our Discourse Layer includes four additional layers of analysis:

Participant analysis
Macrosyntax
Speech act analysis
Emotional analysis

For more information on our method of analysis, click the expandable explanation button at the beginning of each layer.

Participant Analysis

What is Participant Analysis?

Participant Analysis focuses on the characters in the psalm and asks, “Who are the main participants (or characters) in this psalm, and what are they saying or doing? It is often helpful for understanding literary structure, speaker identification, etc.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Participant Analysis Creator Guidelines.

There are 6 participants/characters in Psalm 78:

Asaph

David's flock

The latest generation (vv. 4, 6)

The latest generation's children (v. 6)

Israel/Jacob (vv. 71-72)

YHWH

"YHWH" (vv. 4, 21)

"God" (אֵל) (vv. 7, 8, 18, 19)

"God" (אֱלֹהִים) (vv. 7, 10, 19, 22, 31, 35, 59)

"the Most High" (עֶלְיוֹן) (v. 17)

"God, the Most High" (אֵל עֶלְיוֹן; אֱלֹהִים עֶלְיוֹן) (vv. 35, 56)

"their rock" (v. 35)

"their redeemer" (v. 35)

"the holy one of Israel" (v. 41)

"the Lord" (אֲדֹנָי) (v. 65)

The ancestors

"the ancestors" (vv. 3, 5, 8)

"Ephraimites" (v. 9)

"Israel" (v. 59)

"his [God's] people/inheritance" (v. 62)

"tent of Joseph / clan of Ephraim" (v. 67)

The ancestors' ancestors

"their ancestors" (v. 12, 57)

"his [God's] people" (vv. 20, 71)

"Jacob/Israel" (vv. 21, 71)

Egyptians

The Canaanite nations

The Philistines

David

"David" (v. 70)

"his [God's] servant" (v. 70)

Judah (v. 68)

The psalmist is identified as Asaph (which may refer to one of the "sons of Asaph"—see the phrase-level note—though not necessarily) begins reciting the psalm in first person singular, before joining the chorus of the community of the righteous in the latest generation.
David's flock is identified those who submit to his rule. At the beginning of the psalm this consists of the latest generation, both Asaph('s descendant) and his group as well as the addressee of the psalm (see the notes on accompanying the text table), who are to proclaim the teaching of the psalm, while also receiving it and passing it on to their children. At the end of the psalm, both Jacob, God's people, and Israel, God's inheritance, are marvelously identified with this group as being shepherded by David.
YHWH is referred to by a multitude of different divine names, as listed in the participant set, while also characterized as Israel's rock and redeemer (v. 35).
As is characteristic of Psalms 78–80 as a whole, the antagonists of the psalm are the community's ancestors.^[1] In contrast to the mention of Judah in v. 68, the ancestors are largely referred to by generic names which encapsulate the entire nation, such as "Jacob" and "Israel," or those associated with Shiloh as a locality, such as "Ephraim" and "Joseph." Despite playing the role of antagonist, to which the latest generation should aspire not to be like, a "stubborn and rebellious generation" (v. 8), they also never cease to be YHWH's people (vv. 20, 58; see also the 3ms suffixes in vv. 28, 62-64).
The foreign nations play a subservient role of displaying God's miraculous acts for his people throughout their history—primarily in Egypt throughout the Exodus event (vv. 42-53), but also in the conquest of Canaan (v. 54) and the defeat of the Philistines (v. 66). In the latter instance, the vessel of punishment for his people (vv. 60-64) in turn receive their own justice (vv. 65-66).
Following the rejection of Joseph/Ephraim (v. 67) as the center of covenant administration, and the choice of Judah and Zion (v. 68), David is further chosen as the shepherd who will lead the renewed community (vv. 70-72).

Hebrew	Verse	English
מַשְׂכִּ֗יל לְאָ֫סָ֥ף	1a	A maskil. By Asaph.
הַאֲזִ֣ינָה עַ֭מִּי תּוֹרָתִ֑י	1b	Listen, my people, to my teaching;
הַטּ֥וּ אָ֝זְנְכֶ֗ם לְאִמְרֵי־פִֽי׃	1c	turn your ear to the words of my mouth.
אֶפְתְּחָ֣ה בְמָשָׁ֣ל פִּ֑י	2a	Let me open up my mouth with a parable;
אַבִּ֥יעָה חִ֝יד֗וֹת מִנִּי־קֶֽדֶם׃	2b	let me pour out puzzling problems from long ago.
אֲשֶׁ֣ר שָׁ֭מַעְנוּ וַנֵּדָעֵ֑ם	3a	The things which we heard, and which we learned
וַ֝אֲבוֹתֵ֗ינוּ סִפְּרוּ־לָֽנוּ׃	3b	and our ancestors told us,
לֹ֤א נְכַחֵ֨ד ׀ מִבְּנֵיהֶ֗ם לְד֥וֹר אַחֲר֗וֹן	4a	we will not hide from their children in the latest generation,
מְֽ֭סַפְּרִים תְּהִלּ֣וֹת יְהוָ֑ה	4b	proclaiming the praiseworthy deeds of YHWH
וֶעֱזוּז֥וֹ וְ֝נִפְלְאוֹתָ֗יו אֲשֶׁ֣ר עָשָֽׂה׃	4c	and his power and his wonderful deeds which he has accomplished:
וַיָּ֤קֶם עֵד֨וּת ׀ בְּֽיַעֲקֹ֗ב	5a	how he established a testimony among Jacob
וְתוֹרָה֮ שָׂ֤ם בְּיִשְׂרָ֫אֵ֥ל	5b	and set up a teaching among Israel,
אֲשֶׁ֣ר צִ֭וָּה אֶת־אֲבוֹתֵ֑ינוּ	5c	which he commanded our ancestors
לְ֝הוֹדִיעָ֗ם לִבְנֵיהֶֽם׃	5d	to teach them to their children,
לְמַ֤עַן יֵדְע֨וּ ׀ דּ֣וֹר אַ֭חֲרוֹן	6a	so that the latest generation might know
בָּנִ֣ים יִוָּלֵ֑דוּ	6b	—children who were yet to be born—
יָ֝קֻ֗מוּ וִֽיסַפְּר֥וּ לִבְנֵיהֶֽם׃	6c	[that] they might begin to tell their children
וְיָשִׂ֥ימוּ בֵֽאלֹהִ֗ים כִּ֫סְלָ֥ם	7a	and they might put their trust in God,
וְלֹ֣א יִ֭שְׁכְּחוּ מַֽעַלְלֵי־אֵ֑ל	7b	[so that] they might not forget God's deeds
וּמִצְוֺתָ֥יו יִנְצֹֽרוּ׃	7c	but might obey his commands
וְלֹ֤א יִהְי֨וּ ׀ כַּאֲבוֹתָ֗ם	8a	and might not be like their ancestors,
דּוֹר֮ סוֹרֵ֪ר וּמֹ֫רֶ֥ה	8b	a stubborn and rebellious generation,
דּ֭וֹר לֹא־הֵכִ֣ין לִבּ֑וֹ	8c	a generation who did not keep their heart committed
וְלֹא־נֶאֶמְנָ֖ה אֶת־אֵ֣ל רוּחֽוֹ׃	8d	and whose mind was not faithful to God.
בְּֽנֵי־אֶפְרַ֗יִם נוֹשְׁקֵ֥י רוֹמֵי־קָ֑שֶׁת	9a	Ephraimites, armed [with a bow], archers,
הָ֝פְכ֗וּ בְּי֣וֹם קְרָֽב׃	9b	turned back on a day of battle.
לֹ֣א שָׁ֭מְרוּ בְּרִ֣ית אֱלֹהִ֑ים	10a	They did not keep the covenant of God
וּ֝בְתוֹרָת֗וֹ מֵאֲנ֥וּ לָלֶֽכֶת׃	10b	and they refused to walk in his teaching,
וַיִּשְׁכְּח֥וּ עֲלִילוֹתָ֑יו	11a	in that they forgot his deeds
וְ֝נִפְלְאוֹתָ֗יו אֲשֶׁ֣ר הֶרְאָֽם׃	11b	and [they forgot] his wonders which he had shown them.
נֶ֣גֶד אֲ֭בוֹתָם עָ֣שָׂה פֶ֑לֶא	12a	In front of their ancestors he performed miracles
בְּאֶ֖רֶץ מִצְרַ֣יִם שְׂדֵה־צֹֽעַן׃	12b	in the land of Egypt, the region of Zoan.
בָּ֣קַע יָ֭ם וַיַּֽעֲבִירֵ֑ם	13a	He divided the sea and brought them through;
וַֽיַּצֶּב־מַ֥יִם כְּמוֹ־נֵֽד׃	13b	he made the waters stand like a heap.
וַיַּנְחֵ֣ם בֶּעָנָ֣ן יוֹמָ֑ם	14a	He led them by cloud during the day
וְכָל־הַ֝לַּ֗יְלָה בְּא֣וֹר אֵֽשׁ׃	14b	and [he led them] all night by fire light.
יְבַקַּ֣ע צֻ֭רִים בַּמִּדְבָּ֑ר	15a	He would split rocks in the wilderness
וַ֝יַּ֗שְׁקְ כִּתְהֹמ֥וֹת רַבָּֽה׃	15b	and provide drinking water abundantly, as from oceans.
וַיּוֹצִ֣א נוֹזְלִ֣ים מִסָּ֑לַע	16a	He would bring streams out from rock
וַיּ֖וֹרֶד כַּנְּהָר֣וֹת מָֽיִם׃	16b	and make water flow down like rivers.
וַיּוֹסִ֣יפוּ ע֭וֹד לַחֲטֹא־ל֑וֹ	17a	But again they sinned against him;
לַֽמְר֥וֹת עֶ֝לְי֗וֹן בַּצִּיָּֽה׃	17b	again they rebelled against the Most High in the desert.
וַיְנַסּוּ־אֵ֥ל בִּלְבָבָ֑ם	18a	They put God to the test in their heart,
לִֽשְׁאָל־אֹ֥כֶל לְנַפְשָֽׁם׃	18b	by asking for food for their throat.
וַֽיְדַבְּר֗וּ בֵּֽאלֹ֫הִ֥ים	19a	They spoke against God
אָ֭מְרוּ הֲי֣וּכַל אֵ֑ל	19b	saying: "Is God not able
לַעֲרֹ֥ךְ שֻׁ֝לְחָ֗ן בַּמִּדְבָּֽר׃	19c	to prepare a table in the wilderness?
הֵ֤ן הִכָּה־צ֨וּר ׀ וַיָּז֣וּבוּ מַיִם֮	20a	Since he struck a rock so that waters gushed out
וּנְחָלִ֪ים יִ֫שְׁטֹ֥פוּ	20b	and streams began to flow,
הֲגַם־לֶ֭חֶם י֣וּכַל תֵּ֑ת	20c	is he not able to give bread, too?
אִם־יָכִ֖ין שְׁאֵ֣ר לְעַמּֽוֹ׃	20d	Or can he not provide meat for his people?"
לָכֵ֤ן ׀ שָׁמַ֥ע יְהוָ֗ה וַֽיִּתְעַבָּ֥ר	21a	Therefore, when YHWH heard he became furious;
וְ֭אֵשׁ נִשְּׂקָ֣ה בְיַעֲקֹ֑ב	21b	fire flared up against Jacob
וְגַם־אַ֝֗ף עָלָ֥ה בְיִשְׂרָאֵֽל׃	21c	and also anger rose against Israel,
כִּ֤י לֹ֣א הֶ֭אֱמִינוּ בֵּאלֹהִ֑ים	22a	because they had not believed in God
וְלֹ֥א בָ֝טְח֗וּ בִּֽישׁוּעָתֽוֹ׃	22b	and they had not trusted in his provision.
וַיְצַ֣ו שְׁחָקִ֣ים מִמָּ֑עַל	23a	So he ordered clouds from above
וְדַלְתֵ֖י שָׁמַ֣יִם פָּתָֽח׃	23b	and opened heavenly doors;
וַיַּמְטֵ֬ר עֲלֵיהֶ֣ם מָ֣ן לֶאֱכֹ֑ל	24a	he rained down upon them manna to eat
וּדְגַן־שָׁ֝מַ֗יִם נָ֣תַן לָֽמוֹ׃	24b	and he gave them grain from heaven.
לֶ֣חֶם אַ֭בִּירִים אָ֣כַל אִ֑ישׁ	25a	People ate bread of angels;
צֵידָ֬ה שָׁלַ֖ח לָהֶ֣ם לָשֹֽׂבַע׃	25b	he sent them provisions until they were satisfied.
יַסַּ֣ע קָ֭דִים בַּשָּׁמָ֑יִם	26a	He caused an east wind to blow in the sky
וַיְנַהֵ֖ג בְּעֻזּ֣וֹ תֵימָֽן׃	26b	and he drove a south wind with his might.
וַיַּמְטֵ֬ר עֲלֵיהֶ֣ם כֶּעָפָ֣ר שְׁאֵ֑ר	27a	So he made meat rain upon them like dust
וּֽכְח֥וֹל יַ֝מִּ֗ים ע֣וֹף כָּנָֽף׃	27b	and [he made] winged birds [rain upon them] like the sand on the seashore,
וַ֭יַּפֵּל בְּקֶ֣רֶב מַחֲנֵ֑הוּ	28a	and he made them fall inside his camp,
סָ֝בִ֗יב לְמִשְׁכְּנֹתָֽיו׃	28b	all around his tents.
וַיֹּאכְל֣וּ וַיִּשְׂבְּע֣וּ מְאֹ֑ד	29a	So they ate and were completely satisfied
וְ֝תַֽאֲוָתָ֗ם יָבִ֥א לָהֶֽם׃	29b	when he brought them what they craved.
לֹא־זָר֥וּ מִתַּאֲוָתָ֑ם	30a	They had not turned away from the object of their craving
ע֝֗וֹד אָכְלָ֥ם בְּפִיהֶֽם׃	30b	—their food was still in their mouth—
וְאַ֤ף אֱלֹהִ֨ים ׀ עָ֘לָ֤ה בָהֶ֗ם	31a	when the anger of God rose against them
וַֽ֭יַּהֲרֹג בְּמִשְׁמַנֵּיהֶ֑ם	31b	and he killed some of their strong men
וּבַחוּרֵ֖י יִשְׂרָאֵ֣ל הִכְרִֽיעַ׃	31c	and he struck down young men of Israel.
בְּכָל־זֹ֭את חָֽטְאוּ־ע֑וֹד	32a	In spite of this, they sinned again
וְלֹֽא־הֶ֝אֱמִ֗ינוּ בְּנִפְלְאוֹתָֽיו׃	32b	and did not trust in his wonderful deeds,
וַיְכַל־בַּהֶ֥בֶל יְמֵיהֶ֑ם	33a	so he made them spend their days in vain
וּ֝שְׁנוֹתָ֗ם בַּבֶּהָלָֽה׃	33b	and [he made them spend] their years in anguish.
אִם־הֲרָגָ֥ם וּדְרָשׁ֑וּהוּ	34a	Whenever he killed them, then they would seek him
וְ֝שָׁ֗בוּ וְשִֽׁחֲרוּ־אֵֽל׃	34b	and again look for God.
וַֽ֭יִּזְכְּרוּ כִּֽי־אֱלֹהִ֣ים צוּרָ֑ם	35a	They would remember that God was their rock
וְאֵ֥ל עֶ֝לְיוֹן גֹּאֲלָֽם׃	35b	and [that] God, the Most High, was their redeemer.
וַיְפַתּ֥וּהוּ בְּפִיהֶ֑ם	36a	But they were trying to deceive him with their mouth
וּ֝בִלְשׁוֹנָ֗ם יְכַזְּבוּ־לֽוֹ׃	36b	and with their tongue were lying to him.
וְ֭לִבָּם לֹא־נָכ֣וֹן עִמּ֑וֹ	37a	Their heart was not committed to him
וְלֹ֥א נֶ֝אֶמְנ֗וּ בִּבְרִיתֽוֹ׃	37b	and they were not faithful to his covenant.
וְה֤וּא רַח֨וּם ׀	38a	But he is compassionate.
יְכַפֵּ֥ר עָוֺן֮ וְֽלֹא־יַ֫שְׁחִ֥ית	38b	He forgives iniquity and does not destroy.
וְ֭הִרְבָּה לְהָשִׁ֣יב אַפּ֑וֹ	38c	He repeatedly turned back his anger.
וְלֹֽא־יָ֝עִיר כָּל־חֲמָתֽוֹ׃	38d	And he would not stir up all his wrath.
וַ֭יִּזְכֹּר כִּי־בָשָׂ֣ר הֵ֑מָּה	39a	He remembered that they were flesh,
ר֥וּחַ ה֝וֹלֵ֗ךְ וְלֹ֣א יָשֽׁוּב׃	39b	a breeze that goes by and will not return.
כַּ֭מָּה יַמְר֣וּהוּ בַמִּדְבָּ֑ר	40a	How often did they rebel against him in the wilderness!
יַ֝עֲצִיב֗וּהוּ בִּֽישִׁימֽוֹן׃	40b	[How often] did they grieve him in the desert!
וַיָּשׁ֣וּבוּ וַיְנַסּ֣וּ אֵ֑ל	41a	Again they put God to the test
וּקְד֖וֹשׁ יִשְׂרָאֵ֣ל הִתְווּ׃	41b	and they provoked the Holy One of Israel.
לֹא־זָכְר֥וּ אֶת־יָד֑וֹ	42a	They did not remember his strength;
י֝֗וֹם אֲֽשֶׁר־פָּדָ֥ם מִנִּי־צָֽר׃	42b	[they did not remember] the day in which he saved them from an adversary.
אֲשֶׁר־שָׂ֣ם בְּ֭מִצְרַיִם אֹֽתוֹתָ֑יו	43a	[They did not remember the day] in which he displayed his signs in Egypt
וּ֝מוֹפְתָ֗יו בִּשְׂדֵה־צֹֽעַן׃	43b	and [displayed] his miracles in the region of Zoan—
וַיַּהֲפֹ֣ךְ לְ֭דָם יְאֹרֵיהֶ֑ם	44a	how he turned their rivers into blood
וְ֝נֹזְלֵיהֶ֗ם בַּל־יִשְׁתָּיֽוּן׃	44b	and they could not drink [from] their streams.
יְשַׁלַּ֬ח בָּהֶ֣ם עָ֭רֹב וַיֹּאכְלֵ֑ם	45a	He sent a swarm of insects among them and it devoured them;
וּ֝צְפַרְדֵּ֗עַ וַתַּשְׁחִיתֵֽם׃	45b	[he sent] a plague of frogs [among them] and it destroyed them.
וַיִּתֵּ֣ן לֶחָסִ֣יל יְבוּלָ֑ם	46a	He gave their crops to young locusts
וִֽ֝יגִיעָ֗ם לָאַרְבֶּֽה׃	46b	and [he gave] the fruit of their labor to locusts.
יַהֲרֹ֣ג בַּבָּרָ֣ד גַּפְנָ֑ם	47a	He killed their vines with hail
וְ֝שִׁקְמוֹתָ֗ם בַּֽחֲנָמַֽל׃	47b	and [he killed] their sycamore trees with frost.
וַיַּסְגֵּ֣ר לַבָּרָ֣ד בְּעִירָ֑ם	48a	He gave their livestock over to hail
וּ֝מִקְנֵיהֶ֗ם לָרְשָׁפִֽים׃	48b	and [he gave] their herds [over] to lightning.
יְשַׁלַּח־בָּ֨ם ׀ חֲר֬וֹן אַפּ֗וֹ	49a	He sent among them the wrath of his anger:
עֶבְרָ֣ה וָזַ֣עַם וְצָרָ֑ה	49b	fury and indignation and trouble,
מִ֝שְׁלַ֗חַת מַלְאֲכֵ֥י רָעִֽים׃	49c	by a deputation of angels bringing disaster.
יְפַלֵּ֥ס נָתִ֗יב לְאַ֫פּ֥וֹ	50a	He cleared a path for his anger;
לֹא־חָשַׂ֣ךְ מִמָּ֣וֶת נַפְשָׁ֑ם	50b	he did not spare their soul from death
וְ֝חַיָּתָ֗ם לַדֶּ֥בֶר הִסְגִּֽיר׃	50c	but gave their life over to plague.
וַיַּ֣ךְ כָּל־בְּכ֣וֹר בְּמִצְרָ֑יִם	51a	He killed every firstborn in Egypt,
רֵאשִׁ֥ית א֝וֹנִ֗ים בְּאָהֳלֵי־חָֽם׃	51b	the firstfruits of strength among the tents of Ham,
וַיַּסַּ֣ע כַּצֹּ֣אן עַמּ֑וֹ	52a	but he led out his people like a flock
וַֽיְנַהֲגֵ֥ם כַּ֝עֵ֗דֶר בַּמִּדְבָּֽר׃	52b	and guided them in the wilderness like a herd.
וַיַּנְחֵ֣ם לָ֭בֶטַח וְלֹ֣א פָחָ֑דוּ	53a	He led them securely and they were not afraid,
וְאֶת־א֝וֹיְבֵיהֶ֗ם כִּסָּ֥ה הַיָּֽם׃	53b	but the sea covered their enemies.
וַ֭יְבִיאֵם אֶל־גְּב֣וּל קָדְשׁ֑וֹ	54a	He brought them to his holy territory,
הַר־זֶ֝֗ה קָנְתָ֥ה יְמִינֽוֹ׃	54b	the hill-country which his right hand had acquired.
וַיְגָ֤רֶשׁ מִפְּנֵיהֶ֨ם ׀ גּוֹיִ֗ם	55a	He drove out nations from their presence
וַֽ֭יַּפִּילֵם בְּחֶ֣בֶל נַחֲלָ֑ה	55b	and allotted them as an inheritance by measurement;
וַיַּשְׁכֵּ֥ן בְּ֝אָהֳלֵיהֶ֗ם שִׁבְטֵ֥י יִשְׂרָאֵֽל׃	55c	he let the clans of Israel live in their dwelling places.
וַיְנַסּ֣וּ וַ֭יַּמְרוּ אֶת־אֱלֹהִ֣ים עֶלְי֑וֹן	56a	But they rebelliously put God, the Most High, to the test,
וְ֝עֵדוֹתָ֗יו לֹ֣א שָׁמָֽרוּ׃	56b	and they did not observe his testimonies,
וַיִּסֹּ֣גוּ וַֽ֭יִּבְגְּדוּ כַּאֲבוֹתָ֑ם	57a	but they went astray and acted unfaithfully, like their ancestors.
נֶ֝הְפְּכ֗וּ כְּקֶ֣שֶׁת רְמִיָּֽה׃	57b	They became like a slack bow.
וַיַּכְעִיס֥וּהוּ בְּבָמוֹתָ֑ם	58a	They made him angry with their high places of worship
וּ֝בִפְסִילֵיהֶ֗ם יַקְנִיאֽוּהוּ׃	58b	and with their carved images made him jealous.
שָׁמַ֣ע אֱ֭לֹהִים וַֽיִּתְעַבָּ֑ר	59a	God heard and he became furious,
וַיִּמְאַ֥ס מְ֝אֹ֗ד בְּיִשְׂרָאֵֽל׃	59b	so that he completely rejected Israel
וַ֭יִּטֹּשׁ מִשְׁכַּ֣ן שִׁל֑וֹ	60a	and he abandoned the tabernacle at Shiloh,
אֹ֝֗הֶל שִׁכֵּ֥ן בָּאָדָֽם׃	60b	the tent which he had set up among mankind.
וַיִּתֵּ֣ן לַשְּׁבִ֣י עֻזּ֑וֹ	61a	He gave his strength into captivity
וְֽתִפְאַרְתּ֥וֹ בְיַד־צָֽר׃	61b	and [he gave] his glory into the possession of an adversary.
וַיַּסְגֵּ֣ר לַחֶ֣רֶב עַמּ֑וֹ	62a	He gave his people over to the sword
וּ֝בְנַחֲלָת֗וֹ הִתְעַבָּֽר׃	62b	and against his inheritance he raged.
בַּחוּרָ֥יו אָֽכְלָה־אֵ֑שׁ	63a	Fire consumed his young men
וּ֝בְתוּלֹתָ֗יו לֹ֣א הוּלָּֽלוּ׃	63b	and his young women were not sung to.
כֹּ֭הֲנָיו בַּחֶ֣רֶב נָפָ֑לוּ	64a	His priests fell by the sword
וְ֝אַלְמְנֹתָ֗יו לֹ֣א תִבְכֶּֽינָה׃	64b	and his widows could not mourn.
וַיִּקַ֖ץ כְּיָשֵׁ֥ן ׀ אֲדֹנָ֑י	65a	Now the Lord arose like one who had been asleep,
כְּ֝גִבּ֗וֹר מִתְרוֹנֵ֥ן מִיָּֽיִן׃	65b	like a warrior shouting from [the effects of] wine,
וַיַּךְ־צָרָ֥יו אָח֑וֹר	66a	and he struck back his adversaries.
חֶרְפַּ֥ת ע֝וֹלָ֗ם נָ֣תַן לָֽמוֹ׃	66b	He gave them eternal shame.
וַ֭יִּמְאַס בְּאֹ֣הֶל יוֹסֵ֑ף	67a	But he rejected the tent of Joseph
וּֽבְשֵׁ֥בֶט אֶ֝פְרַ֗יִם לֹ֣א בָחָֽר׃	67b	and did not choose the clan of Ephraim,
וַ֭יִּבְחַר אֶת־שֵׁ֣בֶט יְהוּדָ֑ה	68a	but he chose the clan of Judah,
אֶֽת־הַ֥ר צִ֝יּ֗וֹן אֲשֶׁ֣ר אָהֵֽב׃	68b	Mount Zion which he loves,
וַיִּ֣בֶן כְּמוֹ־רָ֭מִים מִקְדָּשׁ֑וֹ	69a	and he built his holy place like heaven,
כְּ֝אֶ֗רֶץ יְסָדָ֥הּ לְעוֹלָֽם׃	69b	like the earth which he has established forever.
וַ֭יִּבְחַר בְּדָוִ֣ד עַבְדּ֑וֹ	70a	He chose David, his servant,
וַ֝יִּקָּחֵ֗הוּ מִֽמִּכְלְאֹ֥ת צֹֽאן׃	70b	and took him from a sheep pen.
מֵאַחַ֥ר עָל֗וֹת הֱ֫בִיא֥וֹ	71a	From [looking] after nursing animals he brought him
לִ֭רְעוֹת בְּיַעֲקֹ֣ב עַמּ֑וֹ	71b	to shepherd Jacob, his people,
וּ֝בְיִשְׂרָאֵ֗ל נַחֲלָתֽוֹ׃	71c	and [to shepherd] Israel, his inheritance.
וַ֭יִּרְעֵם בְתֹ֣ם לְבָב֑וֹ	72a	He shepherded them with the integrity of his heart
וּבִתְבוּנ֖וֹת כַּפָּ֣יו יַנְחֵֽם׃	72b	and with his wise actions he led them.

vv. 1-72: The identity of the addressee (except vv. 19b–20)
- The identity of the addressee is explicit in the first verse: "my people" (עַמִּי). It becomes specified as the "latest generation" in v. 4 (and v. 6), to which the speaker and his group form a part of from the shift to first person plural in vv. 3-4.
vv. 1-2: Identity of speaker: Asaph (or other priest) or YHWH?
- It is not determinative, but telling that elsewhere in the Asaphite psalms, the mention of עמי "my people" is used by YHWH;^[2] similarly, see Origen's arguments regarding the singular "my teaching."^[3] Nevertheless, the shift to the first person plural in v. 3 indicates strong continuity, so it has been suggested that the speaker is either the king or a court prophet or sage,^[4] or simply Asaph with a group of Levites.^[5] Thus, we consider Asaph as the speaker throughout the psalm to be a preferable interpretation.
vv. 3-8: The riddles of the generations
- We understand the first person singular in vv. 1-2 to join in with the latest generation of the righteous in vv. 3-4 (hence the shift to first person plural).
- "Our ancestors" (v. 3) provide the antecedent to "their children" (v. 4), such that those from whom the message of the psalm will not be hidden is the ancestors' sons, i.e., the present generation, then referred to as the "latest generation" (v. 4; in other words—כל הדור החי אתנו כיום "all the generation alive with us as today").^[6]
- "Our ancestors" is picked up again in v. 5c, such that "their children" in v. 5d again refers to the present generation, which explicitly becomes the subject in v. 6a. The latest generation, in turn, will then tell their children (v. 6c). There is a blur between the latest generation and their children through vv. 7-8, though if it includes the future children, it does not exclude the latest generation, who have thus been determined as the active participant all the way to "their ancestors" again in v. 8a.
- In sum, strange though it appears, the intended speakers and addressee merge into one generation (chronologically), such that "the 'we' can be identified as a combination of speaker and audience,"^[7] though the message is to be spread horizontally from within that generation, such that they would not be like "their ancestors" (v. 8a). Since the latest generation are those who are "being told" without anything hidden from them (vv. 4a, 6b), they are also deemed the recipients of the riddles (v. 2) and the addressee of the entire psalm. On the other hand, the ancestors are "in the first instance ... the Ephraimites, but this rebellious generation will then merge with that of the Israelites in the wilderness."^[8]
v. 4: The identity of the generation
- Modern translations rendering דוֹר אַחֲרוֹן as "coming/next/future generation" conflate the present generation (i.e., the children of the ancestors) with another, posterior generation. The result of the ancestors telling their sons (vv. 5c-d) has the explicit result of the דוֹר אַחֲרוֹן understanding (v. 6a), so it must be the present generation, as indicated by the preferred gloss "latest" for אַחֲרוֹן.
vv. 19-20: The addressee of the ancestors' complaints
- The ancestors (last mentioned explicitly in v. 12) complained and grumbled among themselves against God, not to him, so the addressee is identified as the same group as the speakers, labelled "Israel" for simplicity, as the next explicit appellation, in v. 21.
Identity of the inheritance in v. 55
- Depending on how we interpret the grammar of וַֽ֭יַּפִּילֵם בְּחֶ֣בֶל נַחֲלָ֑ה, the suffix on וַֽ֭יַּפִּילֵם could be understood as the ancestors ➞ "he allotted for them an inheritance" (so, e.g., Symmachus's dative ὑπέβαλεν αὐτοῖς) or the nations ➞ "he allotted them as an inheritance" (so, e.g., the LXX's accusative ἐκληροδότησεν αὐτοὺς).
- The ancestors: The recipient reading of the pronominal suffix on וַֽ֭יַּפִּילֵם is complicated by other examples where the recipient is explicitly flagged by a לְ prepositional phrase.^[9]
- The nations (preferred): As strange as the sense of allotting the nations themselves as an inheritance might seem (see, e.g., the NASB: And apportioned them as an inheritance by measurement)—though see Ps 2:8 and especially 111:6 (לָתֵ֥ת לָ֝הֶ֗ם נַחֲלַ֥ת גּוֹיִֽם)—it simplifies the participant tracking, as otherwise v. 55b would read "allot them," i.e., Israel, and 55c "settle in their dwelling-places," i.e., the nations. It is for this reason the NJPS inverts the order of v. 55b-c, without any manuscript evidence for such a move. Further, though the strict referent of inheritance is the nations, in light of the parallel in Ps 105:11 (לְךָ֗ אֶתֵּ֥ן אֶת־אֶֽרֶץ־כְּנָ֑עַן חֶ֝֗בֶל נַחֲלַתְכֶֽם) it most likely denotes their land—explicitly so in Pss 135:12; 136:21. The use of "nations" to refer to their land as an inheritance is unambiguous in Josh 23:4: רְאוּ֩ הִפַּ֨לְתִּי לָכֶ֜ם אֶֽת־הַ֠גּוֹיִם הַנִּשְׁאָרִ֥ים הָאֵ֛לֶּה בְּנַחֲלָ֖ה לְשִׁבְטֵיכֶ֑ם "See, I have allotted for you these remaining nations as an inheritance for your clans," so the metonymy of nations standing for the nations' territory has been preferred here.
Antecedent of 3ms suffixes throughout vv. 63-64: his people or YHWH?
- His people: The antecedent of the 3ms suffixes throughout vv. 63–64 could be found in "his people" (עַמּ֑וֹ) in v. 62a (so notes the NET). Such a semantic result is reflected in the LXX's plural suffixes ("their") through vv. 63-64. The same plural is found in both the LXX and Symmachus of v. 28's "his camp" and "his tents," (though read as "its camp," i.e., Israel's by Delitzsch [1871, 368]) and also Symmachus of v. 66 ("their adversaries"). The likelihood of this grammatical dependency is weakened, however, with the intervening (feminine) נַחֲלָת֗וֹ in v. 62b.
- YHWH (preferred): The singular use is intentional throughout both this passage and in v. 28's "camp" and "tents." That they belong to YHWH's people and inheritance (cf. vv. 20, 52, 62, 71b) is a key rhetorical point of the psalm. Despite his lengthy patience, they continuously rebelled against him. Even after the shift to dealing with his instruments of wrath (vv. 65-66), "Joseph" and "Ephraim" are still rejected (v. 67).
Identity of צָרָ֥יו in v. 66a: his people, the Philistines, or Israel's enemies from Samuel to David's time?
- For arguments both for and against our preferred interpretation of the "adversaries" as Israel's enemies from Samuel to David's time, see the issue.
Identity of the 3ms suffix in v. 71b: David's or YHWH's people/inheritance?
- Although there may be an intentional ambiguity between David and YHWH here, in continuity with the other instances of "his people" and "his inheritance" throughout the Psalm (see vv. 20, 62), YHWH is the most likely antecedent (though see the unambiguous instance of David in 2 Sam 8:15: וַיְהִ֣י דָוִ֗ד עֹשֶׂ֛ה מִשְׁפָּ֥ט וּצְדָקָ֖ה לְכָל־עַמּֽוֹ).

Participant Relations Diagram

The relationships among the participants may be abstracted and summarized as follows:

File:Psalm 78 - PA Mini-Story.jpg

Participant Analysis Summary Distribution

Macrosyntax

What is Macrosyntax?

Macrosyntax Diagram

Legend

Macrosyntax legend
Vocatives	Vocatives are indicated by purple text.
Discourse marker	Discourse markers (such as כִּי, הִנֵּה, לָכֵן) are indicated by orange text.
	The scope governed by the discourse marker is indicated by a dashed orange bracket connecting the discourse marker to its scope.
	The preceding discourse grounding the discourse marker is indicated by a solid orange bracket encompassing the relevant clauses.
Subordinating conjunction	The subordinating conjunction is indicated by teal text.
	Subordination is indicated by a solid teal bracket connecting the subordinating conjunction with the clause to which it is subordinate.
Coordinating conjunction	The coordinating conjunction is indicated by blue text.
	Coordination is indicated by a solid blue line connecting the coordinating clauses.
	Coordination without an explicit conjunction is indicated by a dashed blue line connecting the coordinated clauses.
	Marked topic is indicated by a black dashed rounded rectangle around the marked words.
	The scope of the activated topic is indicated by a black dashed bracket encompassing the relevant clauses.
Marked focus or thetic sentence	Marked focus (if one constituent) or thetic sentences^[10] are indicated by bold text.
	Frame setters^[11] are indicated by a solid gray rounded rectangle around the marked words.
[blank line]	Discourse discontinuity is indicated by a blank line.
[indentation]	Syntactic subordination is indicated by indentation.
	Direct speech is indicated by a solid black rectangle surrounding all relevant clauses.
(text to elucidate the meaning of the macrosyntactic structures)	Within the CBC, any text elucidating the meaning of macrosyntax is indicated in gray text inside parentheses.

If an emendation or revocalization is preferred, that emendation or revocalization will be marked in the Hebrew text of all the visuals.

Emendations/Revocalizations legend
Emended text	Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is indicated by blue asterisks on either side of the emendation.
Revocalized text	Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is indicated by purple asterisks on either side of the revocalization.

(Click diagram to enlarge)

v. 9 discourse discontinuity and constituent order: After lengthy grammatical subordination throughout vv. 5-8, the fronted "Ephraimites" (בְּֽנֵי־אֶפְרַ֗יִם) provides a topic shift beginning v. 9.
v. 21 discourse discontinuity: After lengthy grammatical subordination and direct speech throughout vv. 19-20, the discourse unit beginning v. 21 is indicated by the discourse marker, "therefore" (לָכֵ֤ן).
v. 32 discourse discontinuity: Following the semantic scope of the previous discourse marker, "therefore" (לָכֵ֤ן) in v. 21, and the symmetrical pattern of v. 31b-c, the discourse unit beginning v. 32 is indicated by another discourse marker "in spite of this" (בְּכָל־זֹ֭את), which finds its semantic denotation (i.e., the "this") in the entire previous discourse unit.
v. 40 discourse discontinuity: After the grammatical subordination throughout v. 39, the (double) exclamative initiated by "How often...!" (כַּ֭מָּה) indicates the beginning of a new discourse unit in v. 40.
v. 56 discourse discontinuity: The end of the semantic content following the relative clause of what was forgotten (from vv. 42-43 onwards) indicates a shift back to the discourse mainline.
v. 65 discourse discontinuity: After the unique instance (in this Psalm) of four sequential topic shifts throughout vv. 63-64, the new discourse unit in v. 65 resumes the pattern of wayyiqtol.

v. 2 post-verbal constituent order: The instrumental בְמָשָׁ֣ל "with a parable" precedes the object פִּ֑י "my mouth" to create repetition between the final constituents of this and the previous line.
v. 3c constituent order: The fronting in אֲבוֹתֵ֗ינוּ סִפְּרוּ־לָֽנוּ indicates the thetic information packaging of the clause as providing the grounds for the previous two, i.e., the means by which they heard and learned.
v. 5b constituent order: תוֹרָה֮ is fronted in תוֹרָה֮ שָׂ֤ם to provide a symmetrical structure with the previous line's וַיָּ֤קֶם עֵד֨וּת ׀, with repetition of the third constituent in each line: בְּֽיַעֲקֹ֗ב // בְּיִשְׂרָ֫אֵ֥ל (for which, see the thematic significance in vv. 21 and 71).
v. 7a post-verbal constituent order: The post-verbal position of בֵֽאלֹהִ֗ים in וְיָשִׂ֥ימוּ בֵֽאלֹהִ֗ים כִּ֫סְלָ֥ם may quite plausibly indicate the focal information structure of this constituent.
v. 7c constituent order: There does not seem to be a clear poetic function for the fronting of מִצְוֺתָ֥יו, so it should be read as a topic shift.
v. 8c post-verbal constituent order: The final position of the subject רוּחֽוֹ provides a pattern of repetition between this and the previous line's 3ms-suffixed לִבּ֑וֹ.
v. 9 discourse discontinuity and constituent order: After lengthy grammatical subordination throughout vv. 5-8, the fronted "Ephraimites" (בְּֽנֵי־אֶפְרַ֗יִם) provides a topic shift beginning v. 9.
v. 10b constituent order: There does not seem to be a clear poetic function for the fronting of בְתוֹרָת֗וֹ, so it should be read as a topic shift (cf. v. 7c above).
v. 12 constituent order: The fronting of נֶ֣גֶד אֲ֭בוֹתָם provides a spatial frame setter for the following discourse (minimally, up to v. 16).
v. 14b constituent order: The order כָל־הַ֝לַּ֗יְלָה — בְּא֣וֹר אֵֽשׁ provides a pattern of symmetry in relation to the previous line's post-verbal בֶּעָנָ֣ן — יוֹמָ֑ם.
v. 20b-c constituent order: The fronted נְחָלִ֪ים provides a tail-head linkage to the previous line's final מַיִם֮, creating syntactic closure before the interrogative beginning הֲגַם.
v. 20d constituent order: The fronted לֶ֭חֶם is best read as focal, both accompanied by the focus particle גַּם and adding an element to the set including מַיִם: "He gave water. Can he also give bread?"
v. 21c constituent order: The fronted clause אֵשׁ נִשְּׂקָ֣ה בְיַעֲקֹ֑ב seems best read as a thetic statement, reasonably out-of-the-blue, introducing 'fire' for the first time, as well as the unaccusative niphal נִשְּׂקָ֣ה, which is also symptomatic of thetic statements.^[12] As a unitary state of affairs, it provides the initial details of the result of YHWH becoming furious (v. 21b).
v. 21d constituent order: The fronted אַ֝֗ף is best read as focal, both accompanied by the focus particle גַּם and adding an element to the set of "fire" and "anger" (cf. v. 20d).
v. 23b constituent order: Although Lunn considers the order here to be motivated by poetic defamiliarization,^[13] the case for symmetry is not particularly strong, so the fronting of דַלְתֵ֖י שָׁמַ֣יִם most likely indicates scalar focus (cf. vv. 25a, 66b) as further specifying the extent of YHWH's provision, not only commanding clouds, but also opening even heavenly doors (a unique expression in the Bible).
v. 24b-25a constituent order: The fronted דְגַן־שָׁ֝מַ֗יִם provides a pattern of symmetry in relation to the previous line's מָ֣ן לֶאֱכֹ֑ל (V - PP + 3pl suffix - O // O - V - PP + 3pl suffix) creating syntactic closure before the asyndesis introducing the לֶ֣חֶם אַ֭בִּירִים in v. 25a, which is most likely fronted for scalar focus, as indicated by the expanded paraphrase.
v. 25b constituent order: The fronting of צֵידָ֬ה does not have an altogether obvious function. In agreement with Lunn, we do not perceive any poetic structure across the two lines of v. 25.^[14] The information structure function of צֵידָ֬ה seems best read as additive focus. The discourse has only mentioned bread up to this point, and from v. 26 onwards, focuses on "meat" and "birds," so צֵידָ֬ה is an extension from "bread" to "provisions" in general (both bread and meat), as indicated by the CBC's expansion.
v. 27b constituent order: The order כְח֥וֹל יַ֝מִּ֗ים — ע֣וֹף כָּנָֽף provides a pattern of repetition in relation to the previous line's post-verbal כֶּעָפָ֣ר — שְׁאֵ֑ר (cf. the symmetry in v. 14b).
v. 29c constituent order: The fronting of תַֽאֲוָתָ֗ם indicates constituent focus, as it is revealed that YHWH brought them more than just "bread" and "meat," but rather nothing less than their craving.
v. 31a constituent order: The fronted clause אַ֤ף אֱלֹהִ֨ים ׀ עָ֘לָ֤ה בָהֶ֗ם is a thetic statement following the temporal clause in v. 30b: [While] their food was still in their mouth, X happened.
v. 31c constituent order: The fronting of בַחוּרֵ֖י יִשְׂרָאֵ֣ל provides a pattern of symmetry in relation to the previous line in preparation for the discourse discontinuity of v. 32:

וַֽ֭יַּהֲרֹג // בְּמִשְׁמַנֵּיהֶ֑ם

וּבַחוּרֵ֖י יִשְׂרָאֵ֣ל // הִכְרִֽיעַ׃

v. 33b constituent order: The order שְׁנוֹתָ֗ם // בַּבֶּהָלָֽה provides a pattern of symmetry in relation to the previous line's post-verbal בַּהֶ֥בֶל // יְמֵיהֶ֑ם (cf. vv. 14b, 27b).

v. 35b constituent order: The order of the verbless clause אֱלֹהִ֣ים צוּרָ֑ם is potentially ambiguous between a simple topic-initial predicational, (i.e., "[as for] God, [he] was their rock") or a comment-initial specificational (i.e., "[it was] God [who] was their rock"). The former is most likely, though see SG21 of the second line for the specificational interpretation: "Ils se souvenaient que Dieu était leur rocher, que le Dieu très-haut était celui qui les rachetait" ("[they remembered] that God Most High was he who redeemed them").

v. 36b constituent order: The fronting of בִלְשׁוֹנָ֗ם provides a pattern of symmetry in relation to the previous line:

וַיְפַתּ֥וּהוּ // בְּפִיהֶ֑ם

וּ֝בִלְשׁוֹנָ֗ם // יְכַזְּבוּ־לֽוֹ׃

v. 37a constituent order: The fronting of לִבָּם is a topic shift from the body parts previously mentioned in v. 36 ("their mouth" and "their tongue").
v. 39 constituent order: The verbless clause בָשָׂ֣ר הֵ֑מָּה is a comment-initial predicational clause, as transparent in the SG21: "Il s’est souvenu qu’ils n’étaient que des créatures" (cf. NBS, NFC, TOB)—see also "just," "only," "but" etc., in the English versions.
v. 41c constituent order: The fronting of קְד֖וֹשׁ יִשְׂרָאֵ֣ל provides a pattern of symmetry in relation to the previous line:

וַיָּשׁ֣וּבוּ וַיְנַסּ֣וּ — אֵ֑ל

וּקְד֖וֹשׁ יִשְׂרָאֵ֣ל — הִתְווּ׃

v. 43a constituent order: The post-verbal position of בְּ֭מִצְרַיִם preceding the object אֹֽתוֹתָ֑יו produces a line-balanced sound play with מִנִּי־צָֽר in the previous line:

אֲֽשֶׁר־פָּדָ֥ם מִנִּי־צָֽר׃

אֲשֶׁר־שָׂ֣ם בְּ֭מִצְרַיִם אֹֽתוֹתָ֑יו

v. 44b constituent order: The fronting of נֹזְלֵיהֶ֗ם produces a tail-head linkage with יְאֹרֵיהֶ֑ם in the previous line.
v. 46b constituent order: The order וִֽ֝יגִיעָ֗ם // לָאַרְבֶּֽה׃ provides a pattern of symmetry in relation to the previous line's post-verbal לֶחָסִ֣יל // יְבוּלָ֑ם (cf. vv. 14b, 27b, 33b). The same phenomenon occurs in vv. 47b and 48b.
v. 50c constituent order: The fronting of חַיָּתָ֗ם provides a tail-head linkage with נַפְשָׁ֑ם in the previous line.
v. 53c constituent order: The fronting of אֶת־א֝וֹיְבֵיהֶ֗ם indicates a brief topic activation, before the text proceeds to recount more of YHWH's deeds. Its line-initial position also brings into relief the phonological correspondence between א֝וֹיְבֵיהֶ֗ם (oyevehem) and וַ֭יְבִיאֵם (vayvi’em) at the beginning of the following line.
v. 56c constituent order: The fronting of עֵדוֹתָ֗יו indicates a brief topic activation (cf. v. 7c), before the text proceeds to recount more of YHWH's deeds.
v. 58b constituent order: The fronting of בִפְסִילֵיהֶ֗ם provides a pattern of symmetry in relation to the previous line:

וַיַּכְעִיס֥וּהוּ — בְּבָמוֹתָ֑ם

וּ֝בִפְסִילֵיהֶ֗ם — יַקְנִיאֽוּהוּ׃

v. 61 constituent order: The order תִפְאַרְתּ֥וֹ — בְיַד־צָֽר provides a pattern of symmetry in relation to the previous line's post-verbal לַשְּׁבִ֣י — עֻזּ֑וֹ (cf. vv. 14b, 27b, 33b, 46b, 47b, 48b).
v. 62 constituent order: The fronting of בְנַחֲלָת֗וֹ creates a tail-head linkage with the final עַמּ֑וֹ in the previous line.
vv. 63–64 constituent order: The fronting of each of the 3ms-suffixed people groups throughout these verses provides a rapid series of topic shifts before the wayyiqtol sequence is resumed again in v. 65.
v. 66b constituent order: חֶרְפַּ֥ת ע֝וֹלָ֗ם is fronted for scalar focus, i.e., this was not just any military defeat (v. 66a), but eternal shame (that is, a definitive defeat).
v. 67b constituent order: The fronting of בְשֵׁ֥בֶט אֶ֝פְרַ֗יִם creates a pattern of symmetry in relation to the previous line:

וַ֭יִּמְאַס — בְּאֹ֣הֶל יוֹסֵ֑ף

וּֽבְשֵׁ֥בֶט אֶ֝פְרַ֗יִם — לֹ֣א בָחָֽר׃

v. 71a constituent order: It seems best to read the fronting of מֵאַחַ֥ר עָל֗וֹת as a pattern of symmetry with the preceding line, v . 70b, in light of the 3ms suffixes on the verbs and מִן prepositions (though this would be a unique case in the psalm crossing a verse boundary):

וַ֝יִּקָּחֵ֗הוּ — מִֽמִּכְלְאֹ֥ת צֹֽאן׃

מֵאַחַ֥ר — עָל֗וֹת הֱ֫בִיא֥וֹ

Alternatively, the fronting of מֵאַחַ֥ר עָל֗וֹת could be understood to provide a spatial frame setter (cf. v. 12a) in order to understand the origin of where YHWH had brought David—specifically from nursing animals—in order to shepherd his people.

v. 72b constituent order: The fronting of בִתְבוּנ֖וֹת כַּפָּ֣יו creates a pattern of symmetry in relation to the previous line:

וַ֭יִּרְעֵם — *בְּ*תֹ֣ם לְבָב֑וֹ

וּבִתְבוּנ֖וֹת כַּפָּ֣יו — יַנְחֵֽם׃

v. 1 vocative position: The vocative is post-verbal, drawing attention to the following sentence constituent.^[15]

(There are no notes on discourse markers for this psalm.)

(There are no notes on conjunctions for this psalm.)

Speech Act Analysis

What is Speech Act Analysis?

The Speech Act layer presents the text in terms of what it does, following the findings of Speech Act Theory. It builds on the recognition that there is more to communication than the exchange of propositions. Speech act analysis is particularly important when communicating cross-culturally, and lack of understanding can lead to serious misunderstandings, since the ways languages and cultures perform speech acts varies widely.

For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Speech Act Analysis Creator Guidelines.

Summary Visual
Analysis Chart

Summary Visual

Speaker		Verses		Macro Speech Acts	Addressee

Asaph		v. 1 A maskil. By Asaph. Listen, my people, to my teaching; turn your ear to the words of my mouth.		COMMITMENT (vv. 1–8) We will pass on the teaching. because YHWH commanded it be passed on, so that future generations would put their trust in God and not forget his works (vv. 4–8).	The latest generation
		v. 2 Let me open up my mouth with a parable; let me pour out puzzling problems from long ago.
		v. 3 The things which we heard, and which we learned and our ancestors told us,
		v. 4 we will not hide from their children in the latest generation, proclaiming the praiseworthy deeds of YHWH and his power and his wonderful deeds which he has accomplished:
		v. 5 how he established a testimony among Jacob and set up a teaching among Israel, which he commanded our ancestors to teach them to their children,
		v. 6 so that the latest generation might know —children who were yet to be born— [that] they might begin to tell their children
		v. 7 and they might put their trust in God, [so that] they might not forget God's deeds but might obey his commands
		v. 8 and might not be like their ancestors, a stubborn and rebellious generation, a generation who did not keep their heart committed and whose mind was not faithful to God.
		v. 9 Ephraimites, armed [with a bow], archers, turned back on a day of battle.		DESCRIPTION OF PROVISION (vv. 9–16) YHWH had performed deeds and wonders in the presence of their ancestors. which our ancestors forgot, so they were defeated in battle (vv. 9–11).
		v. 10 They did not keep the covenant of God and they refused to walk in his teaching,
		v. 11 in that they forgot his deeds and [they forgot] his wonders which he had shown them.
		v. 12 In front of their ancestors he performed miracles in the land of Egypt, the region of Zoan.
		v. 13 He divided the sea and brought them through; he made the waters stand like a heap.
		v. 14 He led them by cloud during the day and [he led them] all night by fire light.
		v. 15 He would split rocks in the wilderness and provide drinking water abundantly, as from oceans.
		v. 16 He would bring streams out from rock and make water flow down like rivers.
		v. 17 But again they sinned against him; again they rebelled against the Most High in the desert.		REPORT & DESCRIPTION (vv. 17–31) Our ancestors’ ancestors continually rebelled and complained against YHWH, despite his abundant provision for them, so he became furious with them (vv. 21–31).
		v. 18 They put God to the test in their thoughts, by asking for food for their throat.
		v. 19 They spoke against God saying: Is God not able to prepare a table in the wilderness?
		v. 20 Since he struck a rock so that waters gushed out and streams began to flow, is he not able to give bread, too? Or can he not provide meat for his people?
		v. 21 Therefore, when YHWH heard he became furious; fire flared up against Jacob and also anger rose against Israel,
		v. 22 because they had not believed in God and they had not trusted in his provision.
		v. 23 So he ordered clouds from above and opened heavenly doors;
		v. 24 he rained down upon them manna to eat and he gave them grain from heaven.
		v. 25 People ate bread of angels; he sent them provisions until they were satisfied.
		v. 26 He caused an east wind to blow in the sky and he drove a south wind with his might.
		v. 27 So he made meat rain upon them like dust and [he made] winged birds [rain upon them] like the sand on the seashore,
		v. 28 and he made them fall inside his camp, all around his tents.
		v. 29 So they ate and were completely satisfied when he brought them what they craved.
		v. 30 They had not turned away from the object of their craving —their food was still in their mouth—
		v. 31 when the anger of God rose against them and he killed some of their strong men and he struck down young men of Israel.
		v. 32 In spite of this, they sinned again and did not trust in his wonderful deeds,		REPORT & REMINDER (vv. 32–43) Our ancestors’ ancestors continually rebelled and repented under false pretenses. Nevertheless YHWH, being compassionate, repeatedly turned back his anger (vv. 38–39).
		v. 33 so he made them spend their days in vain and [he made them spend] their years in anguish.
		v. 34 Whenever he killed them, then they would seek him and again look for God.
		v. 35 They would remember that God was their rock and [that] God, the Most High, was their redeemer.
		v. 36 But they were trying to deceive him with their mouth and with their tongue were lying to him.
		v. 37 Their heart was not committed to him and they were not faithful to his covenant.
		v. 38 But he is compassionate. He forgives iniquity and does not destroy. He repeatedly turned back his anger. And he would not stir up all his wrath.
		v. 39 He remembered that they were flesh, a breeze that goes by and will not return.
		v. 40 How often did they rebel against him in the wilderness! [How often] did they grieve him in the desert!
		v. 41 Again they put God to the test and they provoked the Holy One of Israel.
		v. 42 They did not remember his strength; [they did not remember] the day in which he saved them from an adversary.
		v. 43 [They did not remember the day] in which he displayed his signs in Egypt and [displayed] his miracles in the region of Zoan—
		v. 44 how he turned their rivers into blood and they could not drink [from] their streams.		DESCRIPTION (vv. 44–55) He carried out signs and miracles in Egypt and brought his people safely to their promised land.
		v. 45 He sent a swarm of insects among them and it devoured them; [he sent] a plague of frogs [among them] and it destroyed them.
		v. 46 He gave their crops to young locusts and [he gave] the fruit of their labor to locusts.
		v. 47 He killed their vines with hail and [he killed] their sycamore trees with frost.
		v. 48 He gave their livestock over to hail and [he gave] their herds [over] to lightning.
		v. 49 He sent among them the wrath of his anger: fury and indignation and trouble, by a deputation of angels bringing disaster.
		v. 50 He cleared a path for his anger; he did not spare their soul from death but gave their life over to plague.
		v. 51 He killed every firstborn in Egypt, the firstfruits of strength among the tents of Ham,
		v. 52 but he led out his people like a flock and guided them in the wilderness like a herd.
		v. 53 He led them securely and they were not afraid, but the sea covered their enemies.
		v. 54 He brought them to his holy territory, the hill-country which his right hand had acquired.
		v. 55 He drove out nations from their presence and allotted them as an inheritance by measurement; he let the clans of Israel live in their dwelling places.
		v. 56 But they rebelliously put God, the Most High, to the test, and they did not observe his testimonies,		REPORT & DESCRIPTION (vv. 56–64) They put God to the test and became covenantally useless, such that YHWH became furious and completely rejected Israel’s current covenant administrators.
		v. 57 but they went astray and acted unfaithfully, like their ancestors. They became like a slack bow.
		v. 58 They made him angry with their high places of worship and with their carved images made him jealous.
		v. 59 God heard and he became furious, so that he completely rejected Israel
		v. 60 and he abandoned the tabernacle at Shiloh, the tent which he had set up among mankind.
		v. 61 He gave his strength into captivity and [he gave] his glory into the possession of an adversary.
		v. 62 He gave his people over to the sword and against his inheritance he raged.
		v. 63 Fire consumed his young men and his young women were not sung to.
		v. 64 His priests fell by the sword and his widows could not mourn.
	v. 65 Now the Lord arose like one who had been asleep, like a warrior shouting from [the effects of] wine,		REPORT & EXPLANATION (vv. 65–72) YHWH rose up, zealous to act for his people. In his zeal, he dealt with his people’s enemies and, after rejecting Ephraim, chose Judah, Zion, and David, in order to shepherd Israel, his people, in covenant faithfulness (vv. 66–72).
	v. 66 and he struck back his adversaries. He gave them eternal shame.
	v. 67 But he rejected the tent of Joseph and did not choose the clan of Ephraim,
	v. 68 but he chose the clan of Judah, Mount Zion which he loves,
	v. 69 and he built his holy place like heaven, like the earth which he has established forever.
	v. 70 He chose David, his servant, and took him from a sheep pen.
	v. 71 From [looking] after nursing animals he brought him to shepherd Jacob, his people, and [to shepherd] Israel, his inheritance.
	v. 72 He shepherded them with the integrity of his heart and with his wise actions he led them.

Speech Act Analysis Chart

The following chart is scrollable (left/right; up/down).

Legend

Verse	Hebrew	CBC	Sentence type	Illocution (general)	Illocution with context	Macro speech act	Intended perlocution (Think)	Intended perlocution (Feel)	Intended perlocution (Do)
Verse number and poetic line	Hebrew text	English translation	Declarative, Imperative, or Interrogative Indirect Speech Act: Mismatch between sentence type and illocution type	Assertive, Directive, Expressive, Commissive, or Declaratory Indirect Speech Act: Mismatch between sentence type and illocution type	More specific illocution type with paraphrased context	Illocutionary intent (i.e. communicative purpose) of larger sections of discourse These align with the "Speech Act Summary" headings	What the speaker intends for the address to think	What the speaker intends for the address to feel	What the speaker intends for the address to do

If an emendation or revocalization is preferred, that emendation or revocalization will be marked in the Hebrew text of all the visuals.

Emendations/Revocalizations legend
Emended text	Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is indicated by blue asterisks on either side of the emendation.
Revocalized text	Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is indicated by purple asterisks on either side of the revocalization.

Verse	Text (Hebrew)	Text (CBC)	Sentence type	Illocution (general)	Illocution with context	Macro speech act		Intended perlocution (Think)	Intended perlocution (Feel)	Intended perlocution (Do)
1	מַשְׂכִּיל לְאָסָף	A maskil. By Asaph.	Fragment	Assertive	Introducing the psalm's genre and author.
	הַאֲזִינָה עַמִּי תּוֹרָתִי	Listen, my people, to my teaching;	Imperative	Directive	Commanding his people to listen to his teaching.	Commanding his people to listen to his teaching.	Committing to pass on the teaching.	The latest generation will realize that the upcoming discourse is important.		The latest generation will pay attention to the upcoming discourse.
	הַטּוּ אָזְנְכֶם לְאִמְרֵי־פִי׃	turn your ear to the words of my mouth.	Imperative	Directive	Commanding his people to listen to his words.	Commanding his people to listen to his teaching.
2	אֶפְתְּחָה בְמָשָׁל פִּי	Let me open up my mouth with a parable;	Imperative	Commissive	Committing to explain the parable.	Committing to pass on the teaching.		The latest generation will recognize that the upcoming discourse requires attention and mental effort, but contains a payoff in the end.
	אַבִּיעָה חִידוֹת מִנִּי־קֶדֶם׃	let me pour out puzzling problems from long ago.	Imperative	Commissive	Committing to explain the puzzling problems.
3	אֲשֶׁר שָׁמַעְנוּ	The things which we heard,	Declarative	Commissive	Committing to pass on the praiseworthy deeds of YHWH.
	וַנֵּדָעֵם	and which we learned
	וַאֲבוֹתֵינוּ סִפְּרוּ־לָנוּ׃	and our ancestors told us,
4	לֹא נְכַחֵד מִבְּנֵיהֶם לְדוֹר אַחֲרוֹן	we will not hide from their children in the latest generation,
	מְסַפְּרִים תְּהִלּוֹת יְהוָה וֶעֱזוּזוֹ וְנִפְלְאוֹתָיו	proclaiming the praiseworthy deeds of YHWH and his power and his wonderful deeds
	אֲשֶׁר עָשָׂה׃	which he has accomplished:
5	וַיָּקֶם עֵדוּת בְּיַעֲקֹב	how he established a testimony among Jacob	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining why the praiseworthy deeds of YHWH should be told and passed on to the present and future generations.	Explaining why they must pass on the teaching.			The latest generation will feel thankful that YHWH has made his deeds and ways known.
	וְתוֹרָה שָׂם בְּיִשְׂרָאֵל	and set up a teaching among Israel,
	אֲשֶׁר צִוָּה אֶת־אֲבוֹתֵינוּ	which he commanded our ancestors
	לְהוֹדִיעָם לִבְנֵיהֶם׃	to teach them to their children,
6	לְמַעַן יֵדְעוּ דּוֹר אַחֲרוֹן	so that the latest generation might know
	בָּנִים יִוָּלֵדוּ	—children who were yet to be born—
	יָקֻמוּ וִיסַפְּרוּ לִבְנֵיהֶם׃	[that] they might begin to tell their children								The latest generation will vigilantly speak of YHWH's faithfulness to their children.
7	וְיָשִׂימוּ בֵֽאלֹהִים כִּסְלָם	and they might put their trust in God,								The latest generation and their children will put their trust in God.
	וְלֹא יִשְׁכְּחוּ מַֽעַלְלֵי־אֵל	[so that] they might not forget God's deeds								The latest generation and their children will remember YHWH's deeds.
	וּמִצְוֺתָיו יִנְצֹֽרוּ׃	but might obey his commands								The latest generation and their children will keep YHWH's commands.
8	וְלֹא יִהְיוּ כַּאֲבוֹתָם דּוֹר סוֹרֵר וּמֹרֶה דּוֹר	and might not be like their ancestors, a stubborn and rebellious generation, a generation								The latest generation and their children will take note of the ancestors' unfaithfulness.
	לֹא־הֵכִין לִבּוֹ	who did not keep their heart committed
	וְלֹא־נֶאֶמְנָה אֶת־אֵל רוּחֽוֹ׃	and whose mind was not faithful to God.
9	בְּנֵי־אֶפְרַיִם נוֹשְׁקֵי רוֹמֵי־קָשֶׁת הָפְכוּ בְּיוֹם קְרָב׃	Ephraimites, armed [with a bow], archers, turned back on a day of battle.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing the ancestors' military defeat.	Describing the ancestors' military defeat.	Describing YHWH's miracles and the ancestors' failures.	The latest generation and their children will conclude that the Ephraimites must have been covenantally unfaithful.	The latest generation and their children will feel disappointment in the Ephraimite ancestors.	The latest generation and their children will take pains to not follow the Ephraimites' example.
10	לֹא שָׁמְרוּ בְּרִית אֱלֹהִים	They did not keep the covenant of God	Declarative	Assertive	Describing the ancestors' disobedience.	Explaining the ancestors' military defeat.
	וּבְתוֹרָתוֹ מֵאֲנוּ	and they refused	Declarative	Assertive	Describing the ancestors' disobedience.
	לָלֶכֶת׃	to walk in his teaching,	Declarative	Assertive	Describing the ancestors' disobedience.
11	וַיִּשְׁכְּחוּ עֲלִילוֹתָיו	in that they forgot his deeds	Declarative	Assertive	Describing the ancestors' forgetfulness.
	וְנִפְלְאוֹתָיו	and [they forgot] his wonders
	אֲשֶׁר הֶרְאָם׃	which he had shown them.
12	נֶגֶד אֲבוֹתָם עָשָׂה פֶלֶא בְּאֶרֶץ מִצְרַיִם שְׂדֵה־צֹֽעַן׃	In front of their ancestors he performed miracles in the land of Egypt, the region of Zoan.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing the deeds and wonders YHWH had performed in the presence of the ancestors.	Describing YHWH's deeds and wonders which the ancestors had forgotten.		The latest generation will recognize that YHWH is a trustworthy and faithful God.	The latest generation will feel awe at YHWH's deeds.
13	בָּקַע יָם	He divided the sea	Declarative	Assertive	Recounting how YHWH split the sea.
	וַיַּעֲבִירֵם	and brought them through;	Declarative	Assertive	Recounting how YHWH brought the ancestors through the sea.
	וַיַּצֶּב־מַיִם כְּמוֹ־נֵד׃	he made the waters stand like a heap.	Declarative	Assertive	Recounting how YHWH split the sea.
14	וַיַּנְחֵם בֶּעָנָן יוֹמָם	He led them by cloud during the day	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH led the ancestors through the wilderness.
	וְכָל־הַלַּיְלָה בְּאוֹר אֵֽשׁ׃	and [he led them] all night by fire light.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH led the ancestors through the wilderness.
15	יְבַקַּע צֻרִים בַּמִּדְבָּר	He would split rocks in the wilderness	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH split rocks in the wilderness.
	וַיַּשְׁקְ כִּתְהֹמוֹת רַבָּֽה׃	and provide drinking water abundantly, as from oceans.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH provides drinking water.
16	וַיּוֹצִא נוֹזְלִים מִסָּלַע	He would bring streams out from rock	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH brought streams out from rock.
	וַיּוֹרֶד כַּנְּהָרוֹת מָֽיִם׃	and make water flow down like rivers.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH make water flow down.
17	וַיּוֹסִיפוּ עוֹד	But again	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting the ancestors' continued rebellion against the Most High in the desert.	Reporting the ancestors' continued rebellion.	Reporting the ancestors' continued rebellion and YHWH's anger in response to their lack of faith.		The latest generation will feel shock and disappointment that the Ephraimites would continue sinning.
	לַחֲטֹא־לוֹ	they sinned against him;
	לַמְרוֹת עֶלְיוֹן בַּצִּיָּה׃	again they rebelled against the Most High in the desert.
18	וַיְנַסּוּ־אֵל בִּלְבָבָם	They put God to the test in their heart,	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting how the ancestors put God to the test.
	לִשְׁאָל־אֹכֶל לְנַפְשָׁם׃	by asking for food for their throat.	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting how the ancestors put God to the test.
19	וַיְדַבְּרוּ בֵּֽאלֹהִים	They spoke against God	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting how the ancestors spoke against God.			The latest generation will conclude that the ancestors were in the wrong to doubt YHWH.	The latest generation will feel frustration and shame at the ancestors' lack of faith.
	אָמְרוּ	saying:	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting how the ancestors spoke against God.
	הֲיוּכַל אֵל	"Is God not able	• "Interrogative"	• "Expressive"	Accusing God of withholding his provision.	Complaining about their lack of food.
	לַעֲרֹךְ שֻׁלְחָן בַּמִּדְבָּר׃	to prepare a table in the wilderness?	• "Interrogative"	• "Expressive"	Accusing God of withholding his provision.
20	הֵן הִכָּה־צוּר	Since he struck a rock	• "Declarative"	• "Expressive"	Appealing to YHWH's previous provision of water.
	וַיָּזוּבוּ מַיִם	so that waters gushed out	• "Declarative"	• "Expressive"	Appealing to YHWH's previous provision of water.
	וּנְחָלִים יִשְׁטֹפוּ	and streams began to flow,	• "Declarative"	• "Expressive"	Appealing to YHWH's previous provision of water.
	הֲגַם־לֶחֶם יוּכַל	is he not able to give bread, too?	• "Interrogative"	• "Expressive"	Accusing God of withholding his provision.
	תֵּת		• "Interrogative"	• "Expressive"	Accusing God of withholding his provision.
	אִם־יָכִין שְׁאֵר לְעַמּוֹ׃	Or can he not provide meat for his people?"	• "Interrogative"	• "Expressive"	Accusing God of withholding his provision.
21	לָכֵן שָׁמַע יְהוָה	Therefore, when YHWH heard	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting how YHWH heard their complaint.	Reporting YHWH's anger in response to the ancestor's lack of faith.		The latest generation will conclude that YHWH's anger was justified.
	וַיִּתְעַבָּר	he became furious;	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting YHWH's anger when he heard.
	וְאֵשׁ נִשְּׂקָה בְיַעֲקֹב	fire flared up against Jacob	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting how YHWH's anger rose against Israel.
	וְגַם־אַף עָלָה בְיִשְׂרָאֵל׃	and also anger rose against Israel,	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting how YHWH's anger rose against Israel.
22	כִּי לֹא הֶאֱמִינוּ בֵּאלֹהִים	because they had not believed in God
	וְלֹא בָטְחוּ בִּישׁוּעָתוֹ׃	and they had not trusted in his provision.
23	וַיְצַו שְׁחָקִים מִמָּעַל	So he ordered clouds from above	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH ordered clouds to provide food.	Describing YHWH's abundant provision.		The latest generation will conclude that YHWH was abundantly generous.
	וְדַלְתֵי שָׁמַיִם פָּתָח׃	and opened heavenly doors;	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH ordered clouds to provide food.
24	וַיַּמְטֵר עֲלֵיהֶם מָן לֶאֱכֹל	he rained down upon them manna to eat	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH rained down manna.
	וּדְגַן־שָׁמַיִם נָתַן לָמוֹ׃	and he gave them grain from heaven.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH gave the ancestors grain from heaven.
25	לֶחֶם אַבִּירִים אָכַל אִישׁ	People ate bread of angels;	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how the ancestors ate the bread.
	צֵידָה שָׁלַח לָהֶם לָשֹׂבַע׃	he sent them provisions until they were satisfied.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH satisfied their hunger.
26	יַסַּע קָדִים בַּשָּׁמָיִם	He caused an east wind to blow in the sky	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH sent wind.
	וַיְנַהֵג בְּעֻזּוֹ תֵימָן׃	and he drove a south wind with his might.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH sent wind.
27	וַיַּמְטֵר עֲלֵיהֶם כֶּעָפָר שְׁאֵר	So he made meat rain upon them like dust	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH rained down meat.
	וּכְחוֹל יַמִּים עוֹף כָּנָף׃	and [he made] winged birds [rain upon them] like the sand on the seashore,	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH rained down meat.
28	וַיַּפֵּל בְּקֶרֶב מַחֲנֵהוּ סָבִיב לְמִשְׁכְּנֹתָיו׃	and he made them fall inside his camp, all around his tents.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH rained down meat.
29	וַיֹּאכְלוּ	So they ate	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how the ancestors ate.
	וַיִּשְׂבְּעוּ מְאֹד	and were completely satisfied	Declarative	Assertive	Describing the ancestors' satisfaction.
	וְתַֽאֲוָתָם יָבִא לָהֶֽם׃	when he brought them what they craved.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH brought them what they craved.
30	לֹא־זָרוּ מִתַּאֲוָתָם	They had not turned away from the object of their craving	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting the ancestors' continued obsession with their craving.	Reporting the ancestors' continued rebellion.
	עוֹד אָכְלָם בְּפִיהֶֽם׃	—their food was still in their mouth—	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting the ancestors' continued obsession with their craving.	Reporting the ancestors' continued rebellion.
31	וְאַף אֱלֹהִים עָלָה בָהֶם	when the anger of God rose against them	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting how YHWH's anger rose against the ancestors.	Reporting YHWH's anger in response to the ancestor's lack of faith.		The latest generation will conclude that the ancestors deserved their punishment.
	וַיַּהֲרֹג בְּמִשְׁמַנֵּיהֶם	and he killed some of their strong men	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting how YHWH killed some of the strong men of Israel.
	וּבַחוּרֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל הִכְרִיעַ׃	and he struck down young men of Israel.	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting how YHWH struck down young men of Israel.
32	בְּכָל־זֹאת חָטְאוּ־עוֹד	In spite of this, they sinned again	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting the ancestors' continued rebellion.	Reporting the ancestors' continued rebellion.	Reporting the ancestors' continued rebellion and YHWH's anger in response to their lack of faith.		The latest generation will feel frustration and shame at the ancestors' lack of faith.
	וְלֹֽא־הֶאֱמִינוּ בְּנִפְלְאוֹתָיו׃	and did not trust in his wonderful deeds,	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting the ancestors' lack of trust.	Reporting the ancestors' continued rebellion.
33	וַיְכַל־בַּהֶבֶל יְמֵיהֶם	so he made them spend their days in vain	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting the consequences of the ancestor's lack of faith.	Reporting the consequences of the ancestor's lack of faith.
	וּשְׁנוֹתָם בַּבֶּהָלָה׃	and [he made them spend] their years in anguish.	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting the consequences of the ancestor's lack of faith.	Reporting the consequences of the ancestor's lack of faith.
34	אִם־הֲרָגָם	Whenever he killed them,	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining how the ancestors would seek God.	Explaining the ancestors' pattern of false repentance.
	וּדְרָשׁוּהוּ	then they would seek him
	וְשָׁבוּ וְשִׁחֲרוּ־אֵל׃	and again look for God.
35	וַיִּזְכְּרוּ	They would remember	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining the ancestors' recognition that God was their rock and redeemer.
	כִּי־אֱלֹהִים צוּרָם	that God was their rock
	וְאֵל עֶלְיוֹן גֹּאֲלָם׃	and [that] God, the Most High, was their redeemer.
36	וַיְפַתּוּהוּ בְּפִיהֶם	But they were trying to deceive him with their mouth	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining the reality of the ancestors' "repentance."				The latest generation will feel shame at the ancestors' false repentance.
	וּבִלְשׁוֹנָם יְכַזְּבוּ־לוֹ׃	and with their tongue were lying to him.	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining the reality of the ancestors' "repentance."
37	וְלִבָּם לֹא־נָכוֹן עִמּוֹ	Their heart was not committed to him	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining the ancestors' lack of commitment.
	וְלֹא נֶאֶמְנוּ בִּבְרִיתוֹ׃	and they were not faithful to his covenant.	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining the ancestors' lack of faithfulness.
38	וְהוּא רַחוּם	But he is compassionate.	Declarative	Assertive	Reminding the latest generation that YHWH is compassionate.	Reminding the latest generation of YHWH's attributes.		The latest generation will recognize that YHWH is abundantly patient and gracious.	The latest generation will feel awe at YHWH's attributes and patience.
	יְכַפֵּר עָוֺן	He forgives iniquity	Declarative	Assertive	Reminding the latest generation that YHWH forgives iniquity.
	וְלֹא־יַשְׁחִית	and does not destroy.	Declarative	Assertive	Reminding the latest generation that YHWH does not destroy.
	וְהִרְבָּה	He repeatedly	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining how YHWH's repeatedly turned back his anger.	Explaining how YHWH's attributes were evident in his dealings with the ancestors.
	לְהָשִׁיב אַפּוֹ	turned back his anger.	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining how YHWH's repeatedly turned back his anger.
	וְלֹֽא־יָעִיר כָּל־חֲמָתוֹ׃	And he would not stir up all his wrath.	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining how YHWH would not stir up all his wrath.			The latest generation will know that YHWH had the right to stir up all his wrath.
39	וַיִּזְכֹּר	He remembered	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining YHWH's recognition of the ancestors' mortality.
	כִּי־בָשָׂר הֵמָּה רוּחַ	that they were flesh, a breeze
	הוֹלֵךְ	that goes by
	וְלֹא יָשׁוּב׃	and will not return.
40	כַּמָּה יַמְרוּהוּ בַמִּדְבָּר	How often did they rebel against him in the wilderness!	Declarative	Expressive	Exclaiming the frequency of the ancestors' rebellion.	Reporting the ancestors' continued rebellion.			The latest generation will feel frustration and shame at the ancestors' continued rebellion.
	יַעֲצִיבוּהוּ בִּֽישִׁימוֹן׃	[How often] did they grieve him in the desert!	Declarative	Expressive	Exclaiming the frequency of the ancestors' rebellion.
41	וַיָּשׁוּבוּ וַיְנַסּוּ אֵל	Again they put God to the test	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting how the ancestors put God to the test.
	וּקְדוֹשׁ יִשְׂרָאֵל הִתְווּ׃	and they provoked the Holy One of Israel.	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting how the ancestors provoked the Holy One of Israel.
42	לֹא־זָכְרוּ אֶת־יָדוֹ	They did not remember his strength;	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting the ancestors' forgetfulness.
	יוֹם	[they did not remember] the day
	אֲֽשֶׁר־פָּדָם מִנִּי־צָר׃	in which he saved them from an adversary.
43	אֲשֶׁר־שָׂם בְּמִצְרַיִם אֹתוֹתָיו	[They did not remember the day] in which he displayed his signs in Egypt	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting how the ancestors forgot YHWH's signs and miracles in Egypt.
	וּמוֹפְתָיו בִּשְׂדֵה־צֹעַן׃	and [displayed] his miracles in the region of Zoan—	Declarative	Assertive
44	וַיַּהֲפֹךְ לְדָם יְאֹרֵיהֶם	how he turned their rivers into blood	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH turned the rivers in Egypt to blood.	Describing the signs and miracles the ancestors had forgotten.	Describing the signs and miracles the ancestors had forgotten.	The latest generation will conclude that YHWH's works of redemption in the Exodus are sufficient to produce lasting faith and faithtulness.	The latest generation will feel awe at YHWH's works of redemption in the Exodus.
	וְנֹזְלֵיהֶם בַּל־יִשְׁתָּיוּן׃	and they could not drink [from] their streams.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how the Egyptians could not drink from their streams.
45	יְשַׁלַּח בָּהֶם עָרֹב	He sent a swarm of insects among them	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH sent a swarm of insects among the Egyptians.
	וַיֹּאכְלֵם	and it devoured them;	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how the insects devoured the Egyptians.
	וּצְפַרְדֵּעַ	[he sent] a plague of frogs [among them]	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH sent a plague of frogs among the Egyptians.
	וַתַּשְׁחִיתֵם׃	and it destroyed them.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how the frogs devoured the Egyptians.
46	וַיִּתֵּן לֶחָסִיל יְבוּלָם	He gave their crops to young locusts	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH gave the Egyptians' crops to young locusts.
	וִיגִיעָם לָאַרְבֶּה׃	and [he gave] the fruit of their labor to locusts.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH gave the fruit of the Egyptians' labor to locusts.
47	יַהֲרֹג בַּבָּרָד גַּפְנָם	He killed their vines with hail	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH killed the Egyptians' vines with hail.
	וְשִׁקְמוֹתָם בַּֽחֲנָמַל׃	and [he killed] their sycamore trees with frost.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH killed the Egyptians' sycamore trees with frost.
48	וַיַּסְגֵּר לַבָּרָד בְּעִירָם	He gave their livestock over to hail	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH gave the Egyptians' livestock over to hail.
	וּמִקְנֵיהֶם לָרְשָׁפִים׃	and [he gave] their herds [over] to lightning.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH gave the Egyptians' herds over to lightning.
49	יְשַׁלַּח־בָּם חֲרוֹן אַפּוֹ עֶבְרָה וָזַעַם וְצָרָה מִשְׁלַחַת מַלְאֲכֵי רָעִים׃	He sent among them the wrath of his anger: fury and indignation and trouble, by a deputation of angels bringing disaster.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH sent his anger.
50	יְפַלֵּס נָתִיב לְאַפּוֹ	He cleared a path for his anger;	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH sent his anger.
	לֹא־חָשַׂךְ מִמָּוֶת נַפְשָׁם	he did not spare their soul from death	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH did not spare the Egyptians.
	וְחַיָּתָם לַדֶּבֶר הִסְגִּיר׃	but gave their life over to plague.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH did not spare the Egyptians.
51	וַיַּךְ כָּל־בְּכוֹר בְּמִצְרָיִם רֵאשִׁית אוֹנִים בְּאָהֳלֵי־חָם׃	He killed every firstborn in Egypt, the firstfruits of strength among the tents of Ham,	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH did not spare the Egyptians.
52	וַיַּסַּע כַּצֹּאן עַמּוֹ	but he led out his people like a flock	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH led out his people from Egypt like a flock.
	וַיְנַהֲגֵם כַּעֵדֶר בַּמִּדְבָּר׃	and guided them in the wilderness like a herd.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH guided his people in the wilderness like a herd.
53	וַיַּנְחֵם לָבֶטַח	He led them securely	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH led out his people from Egypt securely.
	וְלֹא פָחָדוּ	and they were not afraid,	Declarative	Assertive	Describing the ancestors' lack of fear.
	וְאֶת־אוֹיְבֵיהֶם כִּסָּה הַיָּם׃	but the sea covered their enemies.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how the sea covered the Egyptians.
54	וַיְבִיאֵם אֶל־גְּבוּל קָדְשׁוֹ הַר־	He brought them to his holy territory, the hill-country	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH brought the ancestors to their promised land.
	זֶה קָנְתָה יְמִינוֹ׃	which his right hand had acquired.	Declarative	Assertive
55	וַיְגָרֶשׁ מִפְּנֵיהֶם גּוֹיִם	He drove out nations from their presence	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH drove out nations from before them.			The latest generation will conclude that the people should have learned their lesson by now.
	וַיַּפִּילֵם בְּחֶבֶל נַחֲלָה	and allotted them as an inheritance by measurement;	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH allotted the nations as their inheritance.
	וַיַּשְׁכֵּן בְּאָהֳלֵיהֶם שִׁבְטֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל׃	he let the clans of Israel live in their dwelling places.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how he let the ancestors live in the dwelling places of the nations.
56	וַיְנַסּוּ וַיַּמְרוּ אֶת־אֱלֹהִים עֶלְיוֹן	But they rebelliously put God, the Most High, to the test,	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting how the ancestors' put the Most High to the test.	Reporting the ancestors' continued rebellion.	Reporting the ancestors' continued rebellion.		The latest generation will feel astonishment that the ancestors continued rebelling.
	וְעֵדוֹתָיו לֹא שָׁמָרוּ׃	and they did not observe his testimonies,	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting how the ancestors' disobedience.
57	וַיִּסֹּגוּ	but they went astray	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting the ancestors' straying.
	וַיִּבְגְּדוּ כַּאֲבוֹתָם	and acted unfaithfully, like their ancestors.	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting the ancestors' unfaithfulness.
	נֶהְפְּכוּ כְּקֶשֶׁת רְמִיָּה׃	They became like a slack bow.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing the ancestors' covenantal brokenness.	Describing the result of the ancestors' continued rebellion.		The latest generation will conclude that the ancestors were covenantally dysfunctional.		The latest generation will pursue covenant faithfulness.
58	וַיַּכְעִיסוּהוּ בְּבָמוֹתָם	They made him angry with their high places of worship	Declarative	Assertive	Describing the ancestors' idolatry.
	וּבִפְסִילֵיהֶם יַקְנִיאוּהוּ׃	and with their carved images made him jealous.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing the ancestors' idolatry.
59	שָׁמַע אֱלֹהִים	God heard	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting how YHWH found out about their idolatry.	Reporting YHWH's anger in response to the ancestor's lack of faith.		The latest generation will know that YHWH's anger is justified.
	וַיִּתְעַבָּר	and he became furious,	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting YHWH's anger in response to the ancestor's lack of faithfulness.
	וַיִּמְאַס מְאֹד בְּיִשְׂרָאֵל׃	so that he completely rejected Israel	Declarative	Assertive	Describing YHWH's rejection of Israel.	Describing the result of YHWH's anger.
60	וַיִּטֹּשׁ מִשְׁכַּן שִׁלוֹ אֹהֶל	and he abandoned the tabernacle at Shiloh, the tent	Declarative	Assertive	Describing YHWH's abandonment of Shiloh.
	שִׁכֵּן בָּאָדָם׃	which he had set up among mankind.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing YHWH's abandonment of Shiloh.
61	וַיִּתֵּן לַשְּׁבִי עֻזּוֹ	He gave his strength into captivity	Declarative	Assertive	Describing YHWH's abandonment of his Ark.
	וְתִפְאַרְתּוֹ בְיַד־צָר׃	and [he gave] his glory into the possession of an adversary.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing YHWH's abandonment of his Ark.
62	וַיַּסְגֵּר לַחֶרֶב עַמּוֹ	He gave his people over to the sword	Declarative	Assertive	Describing YHWH's abandonment of his people.
	וּבְנַחֲלָתוֹ הִתְעַבָּר׃	and against his inheritance he raged.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing YHWH's rage against his people.
63	בַּחוּרָיו אָכְלָה־אֵשׁ	Fire consumed his young men	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how fire consumed YHWH's young men.
	וּבְתוּלֹתָיו לֹא הוּלָּלוּ׃	and his young women were not sung to.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH's young women were left unmarried.
64	כֹּהֲנָיו בַּחֶרֶב נָפָלוּ	His priests fell by the sword	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH's priests were killed.
	וְאַלְמְנֹתָיו לֹא תִבְכֶּינָה׃	and his widows could not mourn.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how YHWH's widows could not mourn.
65	וַיִּקַץ כְּיָשֵׁן אֲדֹנָי כְּגִבּוֹר מִתְרוֹנֵן מִיָּיִן׃	Now the Lord arose like one who had been asleep, like a warrior shouting from [the effects of] wine,	Declarative	Assertive	Reporting the awakening of YHWH's zeal for his own people.	Reporting YHWH's zeal for his own people.	Reporting YHWH's zeal for his own people.	The latest generation will recognize that YHWH is both terrifying and comforting.	The latest generation will feel awe at YHWH's continued zeal for his own people.
66	וַיַּךְ־צָרָיו אָחוֹר	and he struck back his adversaries.	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining how YHWH, in his zeal, struck back his adversaries.	Explaining the result of YHWH's zeal.
	חֶרְפַּת עוֹלָם נָתַן לָמוֹ׃	He gave them eternal shame.	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining how YHWH, in his zeal, gave his adversaries eternal shame.
67	וַיִּמְאַס בְּאֹהֶל יוֹסֵף	But he rejected the tent of Joseph	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining how YHWH, in his zeal, rejected the tent of Joseph.			The latest generation will understand that the Ephraimite leadership was inadequate to produce covenant faithfulness.
	וּֽבְשֵׁבֶט אֶפְרַיִם לֹא בָחָר׃	and did not choose the clan of Ephraim,	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining how YHWH, in his zeal, did not choose the clan of Ephraim.
68	וַיִּבְחַר אֶת־שֵׁבֶט יְהוּדָה אֶת־הַר צִיּוֹן	but he chose the clan of Judah, Mount Zion	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining how YHWH, in his zeal, chose the clan of Judah.			The latest generation will conclude that Judahite leadership will be adequate.	The latest generation will feel hope for the covenant faithfulness of YHWH's people through Judahite leadership. The latest generation will feel love towards Zion, as YHWH also has.
	אֲשֶׁר אָהֵב׃	which he loves,	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining how YHWH, in his zeal, chose the clan of Judah.
69	וַיִּבֶן כְּמוֹ־רָמִים מִקְדָּשׁוֹ כְּאֶרֶץ	and he built his holy place like heaven, like the earth	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining how YHWH, in his zeal, established Zion.					The latest generation will worship in Zion.
	יְסָדָהּ לְעוֹלָם׃	which he has established forever.	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining how YHWH, in his zeal, established Zion.				The latest generation will feel trust in the perdurance of the Zionic center for worship.	The latest generation will worship in Zion.
70	וַיִּבְחַר בְּדָוִד עַבְדּוֹ	He chose David, his servant,	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining how YHWH, in his zeal, chose David.			The latest generation will conclude that it is worth becoming part of the people this Davidic king is leading.	The latest generation will feel relief that the puzzling problems introducted at the beginning of the psalm are beginning to be unravelled.	The latest generation will submit to the Davidic leader.
	וַיִּקָּחֵהוּ מִמִּכְלְאֹת צֹאן׃	and took him from a sheep pen.	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining how YHWH, in his zeal, chose David.			The latest generation will know that David is skilled to shepherd the people, that even the most vulnerable people will be taken care of, and that, with David as undershepherd, the people are not at risk of becoming covenantally dysfunctional.
71	מֵאַחַר עָלוֹת הֱבִיאוֹ	From [looking] after nursing animals he brought him	Declarative	Assertive	Explaining how YHWH, in his zeal, took David to shepherd his people.
	לִרְעוֹת בְּיַעֲקֹב עַמּוֹ	to shepherd Jacob, his people,
	וּבְיִשְׂרָאֵל נַחֲלָתוֹ׃	and [to shepherd] Israel, his inheritance.
72	וַיִּרְעֵם בְּתֹם לְבָבוֹ	He shepherded them with the integrity of his heart	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how David shepherded the people with the integrity of his heart.	Describing the nature of David's leadership.
	וּבִתְבוּנוֹת כַּפָּיו יַנְחֵם׃	and with his wise actions he led them.	Declarative	Assertive	Describing how David led the people with wise actions.	Describing the nature of David's leadership.

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Bibliography

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Stern, Philip. 1995. "The Eighth-century dating of Psalm 78 re-argued," in Hebrew Union College Annual 66: 41–65.

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Footnotes

↑ See Ray 2023.
↑ E.g., שִׁמְעָ֤ה עַמִּ֨י in Ps 50:7; see Cook 2024, 4.
↑ תּוֹרָתִ֑י; Homily 1, 292-293.
↑ Campbell 1979, 63.
↑ Ḥakham 1979, 41.
↑ Ḥakham 1979, 41.
↑ Talstra 2019, 252; cf. Tammuz 2017, 218.
↑ Alter 2019, 189.
↑ See, e.g., Josh 13:6: רַ֠ק הַפִּלֶ֤הָ לְיִשְׂרָאֵל֙ בְּֽנַחֲלָ֔ה; Josh 23:4: רְאוּ֩ הִפַּ֨לְתִּי לָכֶ֜ם אֶֽת־הַ֠גּוֹיִם הַנִּשְׁאָרִ֥ים הָאֵ֛לֶּה בְּנַחֲלָ֖ה לְשִׁבְטֵיכֶ֑ם; Ezek 47:22: תַּפִּ֣לוּ אוֹתָהּ֮ בְּנַחֲלָה֒ לָכֶ֗ם; Ezek 48:29: זֹ֥את הָאָ֛רֶץ אֲשֶׁר־תַּפִּ֥ילוּ מִֽנַּחֲלָ֖ה לְשִׁבְטֵ֣י יִשְׂרָאֵ֑ל.
↑ When the entire utterance is new/unexpected, it is a thetic sentence (often called "sentence focus"). See our Creator Guidelines for more information on topic and focus.
↑ Frame setters are any orientational constituent – typically, but not limited to, spatio-temporal adverbials – function to "limit the applicability of the main predication to a certain restricted domain" and "indicate the general type of information that can be given" in the clause nucleus (Krifka & Musan 2012: 31-32). In previous scholarship, they have been referred to as contextualizing constituents (see, e.g., Buth (1994), “Contextualizing Constituents as Topic, Non-Sequential Background and Dramatic Pause: Hebrew and Aramaic evidence,” in E. Engberg-Pedersen, L. Falster Jakobsen and L. Schack Rasmussen (eds.) Function and expression in Functional Grammar. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 215-231; Buth (2023), “Functional Grammar and the Pragmatics of Information Structure for Biblical Languages,” in W. A. Ross & E. Robar (eds.) Linguistic Theory and the Biblical Text. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, 67-116), but this has been conflated with the function of topic. In brief: sentence topics, belonging to the clause nucleus, are the entity or event about which the clause provides a new predication; frame setters do not belong in the clause nucleus and rather provide a contextual orientation by which to understand the following clause.
↑ Unaccusatives are constructions which are not only inherently intransitive, but which also require the grammatical subject to be the affected patient of the event—such as "arrive," "come," "die," and "disappear," among others (Goldberg 2004, 533)—though not due to passive transformation of an active construction. "Flaring up" also lacks the volition and initiative required of a prototypical agent, such that it fits the unaccusative profile, which is a central diagnostic of thetic sentences (Goldberg 2004, 533; Bailey 2009, 53; Atkinson 2021).
↑ Lunn 2006, 316.
↑ Lunn 2006, 316.
↑ Kim 2022, 233-235; cf. 2 Kgs 19:16; Ps 24:7, 9, etc.

[1] See Ray 2023.

[2] E.g., שִׁמְעָ֤ה עַמִּ֨י in Ps 50:7; see Cook 2024, 4.

[3] תּוֹרָתִ֑י; Homily 1, 292-293.

[4] Campbell 1979, 63.

[5] Ḥakham 1979, 41.

[6] Ḥakham 1979, 41.

[7] Talstra 2019, 252; cf. Tammuz 2017, 218.

[8] Alter 2019, 189.

[9] See, e.g., Josh 13:6: רַ֠ק הַפִּלֶ֤הָ לְיִשְׂרָאֵל֙ בְּֽנַחֲלָ֔ה; Josh 23:4: רְאוּ֩ הִפַּ֨לְתִּי לָכֶ֜ם אֶֽת־הַ֠גּוֹיִם הַנִּשְׁאָרִ֥ים הָאֵ֛לֶּה בְּנַחֲלָ֖ה לְשִׁבְטֵיכֶ֑ם; Ezek 47:22: תַּפִּ֣לוּ אוֹתָהּ֮ בְּנַחֲלָה֒ לָכֶ֗ם; Ezek 48:29: זֹ֥את הָאָ֛רֶץ אֲשֶׁר־תַּפִּ֥ילוּ מִֽנַּחֲלָ֖ה לְשִׁבְטֵ֣י יִשְׂרָאֵ֑ל.

[10] When the entire utterance is new/unexpected, it is a thetic sentence (often called "sentence focus"). See our Creator Guidelines for more information on topic and focus.

[11] Frame setters are any orientational constituent – typically, but not limited to, spatio-temporal adverbials – function to "limit the applicability of the main predication to a certain restricted domain" and "indicate the general type of information that can be given" in the clause nucleus (Krifka & Musan 2012: 31-32). In previous scholarship, they have been referred to as contextualizing constituents (see, e.g., Buth (1994), “Contextualizing Constituents as Topic, Non-Sequential Background and Dramatic Pause: Hebrew and Aramaic evidence,” in E. Engberg-Pedersen, L. Falster Jakobsen and L. Schack Rasmussen (eds.) Function and expression in Functional Grammar. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 215-231; Buth (2023), “Functional Grammar and the Pragmatics of Information Structure for Biblical Languages,” in W. A. Ross & E. Robar (eds.) Linguistic Theory and the Biblical Text. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, 67-116), but this has been conflated with the function of topic. In brief: sentence topics, belonging to the clause nucleus, are the entity or event about which the clause provides a new predication; frame setters do not belong in the clause nucleus and rather provide a contextual orientation by which to understand the following clause.

[12] Unaccusatives are constructions which are not only inherently intransitive, but which also require the grammatical subject to be the affected patient of the event—such as "arrive," "come," "die," and "disappear," among others (Goldberg 2004, 533)—though not due to passive transformation of an active construction. "Flaring up" also lacks the volition and initiative required of a prototypical agent, such that it fits the unaccusative profile, which is a central diagnostic of thetic sentences (Goldberg 2004, 533; Bailey 2009, 53; Atkinson 2021).

[13] Lunn 2006, 316.

[14] Lunn 2006, 316.

[15] Kim 2022, 233-235; cf. 2 Kgs 19:16; Ps 24:7, 9, etc.

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Psalm 78 Discourse

Contents

Book 1

Book 2

Book 3

Book 4

Book 5

Psalm 78

About the Discourse Layer