About the Semantics Layer

Semantics is the study of how language is used to represent meaning. The goal of semantic analysis for interpreting and translating the Bible is to understand the meaning of words and how they relate to each other in context. We want to understand what is implicit about word meaning – and thus assumed by the original audience – and make it explicit – and thus clear for us who are removed by time, language, and culture. The semantics layer is composed of three major branches: lexical semantics, phrase-level semantics and verbal semantics. (Click 'Expand' to the right for more information.)

About Lexical Semantics

One major branch of semantic study is lexical semantics, which refers to the study of word meanings. It examines semantic range (=possible meanings of a word), the relationship between words (e.g. synonymy, hyponymy), as well as the relationship between words and larger concepts (conceptual domains). One component of our approach involves not only the study of the Hebrew word meaning, but also of our own assumptions about word meaning in modern languages. Because the researcher necessarily starts with their own cultural assumptions (in our case, those of Western-trained scholars), this part of the analysis should be done afresh for every culture.

For a detailed description of our method, see the Lexical Semantics Creator Guidelines.

About Phrase-level Semantics

The Phrase-level Semantics layer analyses the meaning of syntactic units which are larger than the level of the word and smaller than the level of the clause. Specifically, this layer analyses the meaning of prepositional phrases (e.g., לְאִישׁ), construct phrases (e.g., אִישׁ אֱלֹהִים), phrases formed by a coordinating waw conjunction (e.g., אִישׁ וְאִשָּׁה) and noun phrases which consist of a noun plus a determiner (e.g., הָאִישׁ) or a quantifier (e.g., כֹּל אִישׁ).

For a detailed description of our method, see the Phrase-level Semantics Creator Guidelines.

About Verbal Semantics

This sub-layer focuses on the relationship between verbs, time and modality. These are important categories for interpretation and translation, and how one analyses a verb can have a significant effect on how it is rendered. This sub-layer has been through several iterations, as it strives to accomplish two things: (1) Transparency for the native Hebrew structures, and (2) Transparency for the interpretation necessary to translate the verbal semantics into other languages.

For a detailed description of our method, see the Verbal Semantics Creator Guidelines.

Semantics Visuals for Psalm 38

Lexical and Phrase-level Semantics Diagram

(For more information, click "Phrase-level Legend" below.)

Visualization	Description
	The prepositional phrase is indicated by a solid green oval.
	The construct chain is indicated by a solid yellow oval.
	When the conjunction ו appears at the phrase-level (not clause-level), it is indicated by a solid light purple oval.
	The article is indicated by a solid blue oval.

See our growing collection of Venn Diagrams, not only for Psalm 38, but for all of the psalms.
See SDBH on Psalm 38.

v. 1

The meaning of the phrase לְהַזְכִּיר is unclear. Its base meaning is "to remind." But who is being reminded? And what are they being reminded of? There are three options. One, David wrote this to remind himself of his sin. Two, David is reminding God that he needs help quickly. Three, this phrase refers to when this psalm should be used liturgically, namely during a memorial offering. For a more detailed discussion, see The Meaning of לְהַזְכִּיר in Ps 38:1. Based on the content of Ps 38 and the other psalm with this superscription, Ps 70, it is best to take this as reminding God to save David. Whether this was intended to specifically go with the memorial offering or was simply intended to remind God to save David, the meaning is the same. In order to preserve both options, the gloss here is simply "bring to remembrance."

v. 2

This verse parallels Psalm 6:2, with the exception that קֶצֶף is replaced with אַף.
This petition to not correct or punish in wrath implies not acting rashly based just on emotions. The psalmist is petitioning God to consider his case and punish him in justice instead of in wrath (cf. Jer 10:24).
The two ְּב prepositions in this verse are functioning to show the situation of the punishment, namely in anger or wrath (BHRG 2017, §39.6.3.f). This usage is metaphorical since anger and wrath are not physical places, so they have been translated as temporal, indicating the situation in which the psalmist does not want to be rebuked or disciplined.
The word קֶצֶף appears 28 times in the Hebrew Bible. The majority of times it refers to the wrath of the Lord, often in response to when someone has disobeyed (SDBH).
The root יכח appears 59 times in the Hebrew Bible. It generally occurs in the context of judicial judgments, decreeing the judgment in the case of disputes between people (e.g. Gen 21:25; Isa 2:4, 11:3) but also includes the argument of the case leading up to judgment (e.g. Job 16:21; see HALOT 410 and TDOT 6:67). In some cases it is verbal, taking the form of argument and counterargument (cf. Job 13:3, SDBH). When God is the subject, the meaning often implies punishment or reproval (TDOT 6:67). However, this word does not carry entirely negative connotations. Being rebuked by God is seen as a blessing because God does it out of love (Prov 3:12; Job 5:17). A noun from the same root occurs in v. 15 of this psalm.

v. 3

The verb נחת only appears 10 times total in the Hebrew Bible. Its base meaning is to go down or descend. The first use of this root in this verse is niphal, describing what the arrows have done to David. The second use is qal, describing what God's hand has done to David. The niphal is used for the first because the arrows don't shoot themselves, but are shot. This root is used in the piel to describe bending a bow of bronze in order to shoot (2 Sam 22:35; Ps 18:35).
The prepositional phrase בִי could either be adversative "against" or simply locative "in/into." While both are legitimate possibilities, it is probably best to understand this as a locative (cf. Jenni 1992, 197).
Likewise, the preposition עַל frequently has a hostile nuance (BHRG 2017, §39.20.3.b).

vv. 4-5

The phrase מפני according to BHRG is used frequently in the context of hostility or threat (BHRG 2017, §39.15). This holds true in this psalm as well since in the previous verse, the psalmist is discussing being attacked by the Lord's arrows and hand. The preposition מִפְּנֵי has two frequent meanings. First, it could mean that someone flees from the presence of someone or something. Second, it could indicate that a situation is caused by someone or something. In this situation, although מִפְּנֵי is not a subordinating conjunction, because it is giving the reason for the clause, it is often translated like one in English: "because of" (DCH, 6:715; BHRG §39.15.2).
The word מְתֹם is very rare, only appearing 4 times in the Hebrew Bible, half of which are in this psalm. It appears in Judges 20:48, but that text is difficult and has many textual variants so it is not reliable in determining the meaning of the word. The other passage is Isaiah 1:6, which reads, "From the sole of the foot even to the head, there is no soundness (מְתֹם) in it, but bruises and sores and raw wounds; they are not pressed out or bound up or softened with oil" (ESV). This verse confirms that מְתֹם is the opposite of an injury or wound. The LXX translates this as ἴασις, which refers to healing and restoration after an illness or injury (BDAG, 465). Similarly, the Targums translate this word as אָסוּ, which means either 'cure' or 'healing' (Targum Lexicon). The Peshitta translate it ܫܠܡܐ "wholeness," the same way שָׁלוֹם is translated in the b line. Because מְתֹם is from the root תמם, which means to finish or complete something, it is best to understand this word to mean a part of the body that is whole, complete, or sound (BDB, 1070; TDOT, 15:700).
זעם appears 22 times. HALOT defines this word as "cursed by an indignant God" (HALOT, 277). This could indicate a curse because of God's wrath (SDBH).
The noun עָוֺן is frequently glossed as either "iniquity" or "guilt." The noun has three basic components in its meaning: the deed of wrongdoing itself, the feelings of distress (guilt) resulting from that wrongdoing, and the punishment. "Iniquity" is not a commonly used word in English outside of religious circles, where it basically is a synonym for sin. While this does capture the idea of the deed of wrongdoing, it cannot include the feelings of distress or the punishment.

"Guilt," on the other hand, first and foremost includes those feelings of distress. Because of its use in judicial circumstances, "guilt" also can refer to the act of wrongdoing or crime as well. The only aspect that it does not include is the punishment for that wrongdoing.

Therefore, "guilt" is a better gloss than "iniquity" for the general meaning of עָוֺן. However, when the context is specifically focusing on the act itself, "iniquity" is a more accurate rendering.

The phrase עֲוֺנֹתַי עָבְרוּ is interesting. Typically, when עבר is used with a word relating to sin or guilt, it is in the context of forgiveness: the sin is being "passed over," resulting in a reprieve from punishment. However, in this verse, the second line makes this interpretation not viable. In this instance, עבר retains its more literal sense of passing or going over, like drowning in a river (Jon 2:4; TDOT, 10:421).
The use of מִמֶּֽנִּי in this verse is a bit difficult. There are two main options. First, this could be a locative use of מן, indicating that this is a heavy burden on the psalmist (Exo 20:18; BHRG 2017, §39.14.2a). This reading is supported by the LXX and Jerome. Second, this could be a comparative use of מן. This use of מן happens when following an adjective or an intransitive verb (Exo 18:18; Num 11:14; Exo 12:4; JM 2006, §141i; GKC 1910, §133.c). A literal translation would be "they are heavy like a burden is heavy, heavier than I," meaning it is heavier than the psalmist can endure (Delitzsch 1871, 21). Many modern translations add a verb like "to bear" to draw out the comparison (NIV, NLT, NET, CSB). However, omitting the verb still allows the meaning to be clear. Thus, this prepositional phrase and verb could be translated "too heavy for me." There is a slight difference in the meaning between these two options. The locative would imply that this is a burden the psalmist could carry, but is very difficult. The comparative, on the other hand, would imply that the psalmist is not capable of carrying this burden at all. Exodus 18:18 and Numbers 11:14 both help elucidate the meaning of this expression. While they use the adjectival instead of the verbal form of כבד, the context clearly indicates that the subject is unable to carry the burden: "...for the thing is too heavy for you. You are not able to do it alone" (Exo 18:18 ESV). As such, it is most likely that this passage is similar and should be understood in the comparative sense.

v. 6

The verb באשׁ appears 18 times in the Hebrew Bible. It refers to something going rancid and stinking because of it. It is also used metaphorically for being hated (because of the stench) (Gen. 34:30, Ex. 5:21, 1 Sam 13:4). This metaphorical usage is not in view here.
The noun חַבּוּרָה is rare, only appearing 7 times in the Hebrew Bible. In most other verses it is in parallel to its synonym, פצע 'wound' (Gen 4:23; Ex 21:25; Isa 1:6; Prov 20:30). It is unclear what kind of wound חַבּוּרָה refers to, however, or how it was inflicted.
The noun אִוֶּלֶת appears 25 times and only in Psalms and Proverbs, but its verbal root, אול, has a broader distribution, occurring also in the prophets. It is frequently contrasted with wisdom and understanding (BDB, 17; DCH, 1:153; SDBH; see Prov 14:29, 15:21). This word is associated with a lack of discipline, a short temper, and answering before thinking (SDBH; DCH, 1:153; Prov. 5:23, 14:17, 12:23). Because of these connotations, this foolishness seems to have a moral component to it. This is not just a stupid mistake or something done out of lack of information.
The verbs הִבְאִישׁוּ נָמַקּוּ create a verbal hendiadys, a rhetorical device where two verbs combine to create a meaning greater than they had individually. Without the hendiadys, these verbs would literally mean "my wounds have become foul and rotted." However, when taken together as verbal hendiadys, the meaning is intensified.

vv. 7-8

Like the two verbs in v. 6, the first two verbs in v. 7, individually meaning נַעֲוֵיתִי שַׁחֹתִי, form a verbal hendiadys. With the use of the verbal hendiadys, the meaning becomes even more intense: "I have become contorted".
While the verbal form of עוה is not common, the word עָוֹן is derived from the same root (SDBH; HALOT, 796). Some scholars believe there are two roots that are homonyms, one which means to do iniquity which עָוֹן is derived from and one which means to bend or twist (BDB, 730; DCH, 6:295). While this is a possibility, the idea of bending or twisting can also be understood in the breaking of the law and doing iniquity, so it may be best to simply understand these as different aspects of the same verb. In the qal, this verb means to do iniquity or wrong. In this verse, this verb cannot mean "I have sinned," however, because it is in the niphal. While the niphal only appears four times in the Hebrew Bible, it still has a connection "with some sort of guilty or sinful involvement" (TDOT, 10:548). In the piel, עוה can have the idea of someone twisting something (Isa 24:1, Lam 3:9). In addition, the Targum translates this word עקימית, meaning "to be crooked." Based on this use of the piel and the context, this verb could portray the psalmist writhing in pain, twisted and prone from his suffering.
The verb שחח is also not common in the Hebrew Bible. It appears 17 times. It is often used to describe someone bowing down because they have either been humbled or they are suffering (HALOT, 1458; see Isa 2:11 and Psa 35:14). In this passage it could be a bit of both since the psalmist has sinned and is distraught about it (v. 4-5) and is suffering because of that sin, both physically and mentally (v. 19).
The phrase עַד־מְאֹד is an idiom expressing the extreme extent to which David has become contorted (HALOT; BHRG §39.19.3).
The phrase כָּל־הַיּוֹם is frequently used to describe something that is continually happening (c.f. Gen. 6:5; Isa 52:5; JM 2006, 485).
The participle קֹדֵר is expressing the manner that the psalmist is walking around.
The noun כֶּסֶל is also rare in the Hebrew Bible. It appears 7 times, 5 of which are used in the same phrase in the book of Leviticus, "and the two kidneys with the fat that is on them at the loins, and the long lobe of the liver that he shall remove with the kidneys" (Lev 3:4, 10, 15, 4:9, 7:4). These passages are discussing the offering of peace offerings, the sin offering for the priest, and the guilt offering. Job 15:27 is the other verse that uses this noun when it describes gathering fat on this part of the body. This word refers to the part of the body which accumulates fat between the ribs and the hips on the back, the lumbar region (SDBH; TDOT, 7:264; HALOT, 489; SDBH).
The root קלה appears 10 times in the Hebrew Bible, mostly referring to the roasting of grain. Here the imagery of roasted grain is applied to the psalmist's loin potentially as an image of fever or inflammation (SDBH).

v. 9

The verb פוג appears 4 times in the Hebrew Bible. Only here does it appear in the niphal. It appears in Gen 45:26 when Jacob learns that Joseph is still alive and his heart פוג because he doesn't believe the news. In Hab 1:4, the law is described with this verb in parallel with justice not going forth. The last place the verb appears is in Psa 77:3 where the psalmist's hand is stretched out and does not פוג, refusing to be comforted. The Syriac cognate means to be cold. The Aramaic cognate means to cease or be helpless (BDB, 806) or to be faint (Targum Lexicon). The LXX translates this with the aorist passive of κακόω, which means to be mistreated or to suffer (BDAG, 502). With all this in mind, the word likely means something along the lines of becoming weak potentially because of or felt through cold.
The verb שׁאג has a similar meaning as נְהָמָה. It is a verb often used to describe a lion roaring. It is also used of God (Jer 25:30; Amos 1:2). It has a nominal form as well, but the nominal form is never used in conjunction with the verb. Only in Psalms and Job is the concept of roaring or groaning in suffering presented.
The use of מן in this verse indicates the reason for the roar--because the psalmist's heart is groaning (c.f. BHRG 2017, 363).
The word נְהָמָה is rare in Scripture. It only appears twice: here and in Isaiah 5:30, where it refers to the noise of the sea. It comes from the root נהם, which frequently refers to the growling of lions (Isa 5:29, Prov. 28:15), similar to the other nominal form, נַהַם (Prov. 19:12, 20:2). The verbal form is also used when humans are dying (Prov. 5:11) or suffering (Ezek. 24:23). While this word is typically glossed groaning, to make its usage in context clearer, it can be glossed as severe suffering (SDBH).

v. 10

The noun תַּאֲוָה appears 21 times in the Hebrew Bible. It is used generally of something someone desires or craves.
The word נֶגֶד, while grammatically a noun, functions like a preposition to the extent that some lexicons classify it as a preposition (DCH, 5:603; c.f. BDB, 617; SDBH).

v. 11

The word סְחַרְחַר is a pe'alal form from the root סחר. This is the only instance of the pe'alal form of this verb appearing in the Old Testament. The qal form is used to describe trading or carrying about business, often used of merchants who would travel to sell their wares (e.g. Gen. 37:28; BDB, 695). Because the meaning of the qal is so different and this is the only usage of the pe'alal, it is difficult to determine the exact meaning of this word. However, scholars agree that the word is onomatopoeic, describing a racing heartbeat (SDBH; HALOT, 750; Wolff, 1974, 42).
The verb עזב has a broader semantic scope than "abandon." It also includes things like freeing from captivity or entrusting with someone else. The gloss "leave" could be a better gloss, but at the cost of the specificity of "abandon." In this context, "abandon" will work as a good gloss for עזב.

The phrase אוֹר־עֵינַי is used to indicate life. Seeing light means being alive (see Job 33:28). On the other hand, the dead no longer see light (Psa 49:19; TDOT, 1:158). The psalmist is using hyperbole to declare that he is close to death here.

v. 12

The construct chain אֹהֲבַי is a participle form of אהב, which means to love, with a 1st person pronominal suffix. While many construct chains could be interpreted as either subjective or object, when אהב is in construct, it only takes an objective reading (cf. Exo 20:6; Prov 8:17). Based on the context that these people stand far away from him, it is likely that these are people who love or at least pretend to love the psalmist.
The compound subject אֹהֲבַי וְרֵעַי likely are two synonyms referring to the same group of people.
The prepositional phrase מִנֶּ֣גֶד נִגְעִ֣י literally translates "away from before (the presence of) my disease." The focus here is that the psalmist's friends are far away from him because he is sick. The use of מן to give the reason or grounds does rarely occur (BHRG 2017, 363). However, it is more likely that this is just the general use of מן to indicate separation: "away from" (1 Sam 26:20; Amos 9:3; BHRG 2017, 360).
The word נגע means either "injury" or "disease" (SDBH). It is often used to refer to leprosy (Num 13 and 14), but can also refer to any kind of physical injury (Deut 17:8). In the plural it can be used to describe suffering because of iniquity as a form of discipline (2 Sam 7:14; Ps 89:33).

v. 13

To seek someone's life means to pursue someone in order to kill them (TDOT, 2:233). Likewise, to pursue someone's harm means to pursue someone in order to do harm to them.
The noun הַוָּה only appears in poetic literature. It frequently has the concept of lies resulting in destruction or ruin (Ps 5:10, Job 6:30). When in the plural, like it is in this verse, it is often used to refer to the fruits of evil desire (TDOT 1978, 3:356).
Similarly, מִרְמָה also indicates the telling of lies, usually with explicit benefit to the one telling the lies, in which they conceal or cover up facts, damaging to a relationship (Gen 27:35, Hos 12:8, Jer 5:27; SDBH; TDOT 2004, 13:501).
Both of these words are in the plural. Sometimes the plural is used to intensify the idea of the stem (GKC §124.e). In this instance, the plurality is emphasizing the magnitude of this betrayal and could even point to the large number of those opposing the psalmist (v. 20).

v. 14

v. 15

The noun תּוֹכָחֽוֹת is most frequently used to mean reproof, rebuke, or correction. However, this word and the verb it is derived from are commonly used in the context of judicial cases, where it "refers to a formal statement of one's position" (TDOT; 6:70). As such, it is sometimes understood as a contradiction or retort (HALOT, 1698).
The participle שֹׁמֵעַ sometimes has the connotation of a witness at a judicial hearing (Judg 11:10, Prov 21:28).

v. 16

The double apposition of אֲדֹנָי אֱלֹהָי is emphatic. The use of אֲדֹנָי describes God's role, while the use of אֱלֹהָי emphasizes the psalmist's relationship to him. The fact that both of these are used and there is an explicit second person pronoun here is striking.

v. 17

The phrase אָ֭מַרְתִּי פֶּן is used idiomatically to mean something along the lines of "I have become afraid that X might happen." To keep this closer to the Hebrew, we have translated this "I thought that they would rejoice concerning me..." While this does not necessarily express the dread that is in the Hebrew, the idea can still be conveyed. The quotative frame of אמר, then is simply part of the idiom and does not set apart this verse as a direct quote.
Rather than advantage, the ל expresses that this rejoicing is to the psalmist's disadvantage.
The phrase יִשְׂמְחוּ־לִי indicates the psalmist's enemies are maliciously rejoicing over his misfortune.
In the phrase עָלַ֥י הִגְדִּֽילוּ, the preposition shows that the psalmist's enemies are viewing themselves as superior to him, which is to the psalmist's detriment (Jer 48:26; BHRG 2017, §39.20.2.a; JM 2006, §133f). Another potential nuance is adversative, drawing out the hostile nature of this exaltation (1 Chr 21:10; BHRG 2017, §39.29.3.b). However, the use of the verb גדל here lends itself to the superior usage.

v. 18

The verb צלע is rare, but is usually used in the context of becoming lame or limping (Gen 32:32). These people were generally seen as outcasts (c.f. Micah 4:6, 7; Zeph 3:19).
The prepositional phrase לְצֶ֣לַע expresses the purpose of what the psalmist is certain of (Gen 31:52; Psa 119:5; BHRG 2017, §39.11.6.d). This does not indicate that the psalmist is planning to stumble, but rather that he is certain that it will happen.
The phrase לְצֶלַע נָכוֹן is interesting because כון contains the idea of being steadfast and sure, established, while צלע has the exact opposite meaning of not being surefooted, but rather limping and being unstable. David is expressing the fact that he is certain he will stumble.
The noun מַכְאֹב has the general meaning of pain or suffering, but can be figuratively expanded to sorrow caused by that pain or suffering (HALOT, 579; DCH, 5:265; BDB, 456; TDOT, 7:10). Some scholars interpret it as just meaning "wound," but that seems too general (SDBH).

v. 19

The verb נגד has the base meaning of telling about (SDBH). When it appears with a word relating to sin or guilt as the object, it most frequently refers to publicly declaring it (Isa 3:9; 58:1; Mic 3:8; Job 36:9; DCH). In this context, this public declaration of sin is a form of confession, so the gloss "confess" is preferred (BDB).
The verb דאג appears seven times in the Hebrew Bible. It typically refers to being distressed, anxious, worried, or afraid (1 Sam 9:5; Isa 57:11). It often refers to be distressed about something that is unresolved. In this context, David's sin and everything that resulted from it or could result from it is causing him to be distressed.
This use of מן indicates the reason for the psalmist's anxiety (c.f. BHRG 2017, 363). This is a similar usage to מִפְּנֵי in verse 4.

v. 20

While the adjective חַי (in the alternative) has the base meaning of "alive," it can also indicate that the person is healthy and/or thriving (DCH 3:202; SDBH; see TDOT, 4:328, 333).
The verb עצם only appears 17 times. It means either many or strong, but frequently it is difficult to tell which is in focus in the context (DCH, 6:533). Potentially both are encapsulated in this term (SDBH). It is usually associated in some way with hostility or conflict whether the enemies are growing more numerous and powerful or if Israel is growing more numerous and powerful (TDOT, 11:294).
The word שֶׁקֶר here is used metaphorically. The base meaning is "lie" but when used adverbially it can mean "wrongfully" or "without cause" (DCH 2011; 8:558).

v. 21

Both uses of תחת in this verse are instances of substitution, where one thing takes the place of another (BHRG 2017, 379). The preposition תחת frequently occurs in the Pentateuch with the verb שׁלם with the meaning to repay something for something. In this verse, the first use of תחת shows people repaying evil for good. The second use is less clear because the verb שׁלם is not used, but rather the verb שׂטן. In this second prepositional phrase, the same meaning is carried through, however, painting the picture of people repaying the good the psalmist is pursuing with hostility toward him.
The verb שׂטן means to oppose or be hostile toward someone. This could include (falsely) accusing them in a court of law (Ps 109:4, 20; Zech 3:1; DCH 8:122; TDOT, 14:75). In this passage it is unclear if judicial accusation is in the forefront or just hostility. There are some words scattered throughout this psalm, such as תוֹכִיחֵנִי (v. 2) and תּוֹכָחוֹת (v. 15) which could give the image of a court case.

v. 22

For the meaning of עזב, see note on v. 11.

v. 23

The ל preposition here indicates the purpose for YHWH to hurry: the psalmist requires help.

Verbal Semantics Chart

(For more information, click "Verbal Legend" below.)

Conjugations
qatal	yiqtol-jussive
wayyiqtol (following qatal)*	cohortative
yiqtol	participle
wayyiqtol (following yiqtol)*	wayyiqtol (following participle)*
weyiqtol	inf. construct
weqatal	inf. absolute
*Wayyiqtol is colored a darker version of the conjugation it follows.

Relative tense arrows
Relative tense arrows (placed within the appropriate 'Fut/Pres/Past' column) are color coded according to the conjugation of the verb. The arrows in the table below are colored according to the typical uses of the conjugations.
After/posterior/future	Imminent future	Simultaneous/right now	Recent past	Before/anterior/past
← ←	↤	↓↓↓	↦	→ →

Aspect
	Continuous	Habitual or iterative	Stative	Perfective
Encoded in words	⟲	⟲⟲⟲	⎯	•
Inferable from context	⟲	⟲⟲⟲	⎯	•

Reference point movement
Movement	No movement
⇐	⇍

Modality
indicative	purpose/result
jussive	necessity
imperative	possible
cohortative	probable
wish	ability
(past) conditional	interrogative, etc.

If an emendation or revocalization is preferred, that emendation or revocalization will be marked in the Hebrew text of all the visuals.

Emendations/Revocalizations legend
Emended text	Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is indicated by blue asterisks on either side of the emendation.
Revocalized text	Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is indicated by purple asterisks on either side of the revocalization.

Bibliography

Delitzsch, Franz. 1871. Biblical Commentary on the Psalms: Vol. 2. Translated by Francis Bolton. Vol. 2. T & T Clark.

Jenni, Ernst. 1992. Die Hebräischen Präpositionen Band 1: Die Präposition Beth. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer.

Psalm 38 Semantics