Psalm 22 Story Behind
Have you forsaken me?
Psalm 22
About the Story Behind Layer
The Story Behind the Psalm shows how each part of the psalm fits together into a single coherent whole. Whereas most semantic analysis focuses on discrete parts of a text such as the meaning of a word or phrase, Story Behind the Psalm considers the meaning of larger units of discourse, including the entire psalm.
The goal of this layer is to reconstruct and visualize a mental representation of the text as the earliest hearers/readers might have conceptualized it. We start by identifying the propositional content of each clause in the psalm, and then we identify relevant assumptions implied by each of the propositions. During this process, we also identify and analyze metaphorical language (“imagery”). Finally, we try to see how all of the propositions and assumptions fit together to form a coherent mental representation. The main tool we use for structuring the propositions and assumptions is a story triangle, which visualizes the rise and fall of tension within a semantic unit. Although story triangles are traditionally used to analyze stories in the literary sense of the word, we use them at this layer to analyze “stories” in the cognitive sense of the word—i.e., a story as a sequence of propositions and assumptions that has tension.
Summary Triangle
The story triangle below summarises the story of the whole psalm. We use the same colour scheme as in Participant Analysis. The star icon along the edge of the story-triangle indicates the point of the story in which the psalm itself (as a speech event) takes place. We also include a theme at the bottom of the story. The theme is the main message conveyed by the story-behind.
| Story Triangles legend | |
|---|---|
| Propositional content (verse number) | Propositional content, the base meaning of the clause, is indicated by bold black text. The verse number immediately follows the correlating proposition in black text inside parentheses. |
| Common-ground assumption | Common-ground assumptions[1] are indicated by gray text. |
| Local-ground assumption | Local-ground assumptions[2] are indicated by dark blue text. |
| Playground assumption | Playground assumptions[3] are indicated by light blue text. |
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The point of the story at which the psalm takes place (as a speech event) is indicated by a gray star. |
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If applicable, the point of the story at which the psalm BEGINS to take place (as a speech event) is indicated with a light gray star. A gray arrow will travel from this star to the point at which the psalm ends, indicated by the darker gray star. |
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A story that repeats is indicated by a circular arrow. This indicates a sequence of either habitual or iterative events. |
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A story or event that does not happen or the psalmist does not wish to happen is indicated with a red X over the story triangle. |
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Connections between propositions and/or assumptions are indicated by black arrows with small text indicating how the ideas are connected. |
| Note: In the Summary triangle, highlight color scheme follows the colors of participant analysis. | |
Background ideas
Following are the common-ground assumptionsCommon-ground assumptions include information shared by the speaker and hearers. In our analysis, we mainly use this category for Biblical/Ancient Near Eastern background. which are the most helpful for making sense of the psalm.
- Onlookers think that anyone who suffers must deserve it (Job; Pss 35:15–16; 69:20–21; 71:7–11; 109:25).
- After an experience of deliverance, the rescued person would hold a thanksgiving meal to which they would invite the poor (Pss 26:12; 35:18; 40:10; 69:31–34; 107:31–32; 109:30; 116:17–18).
Background situation
The background situation is the series of events leading up to the time in which the psalm is spoken. These are taken from the story triangle – whatever lies to the left of the star icon.
Expanded Paraphrase
The expanded paraphrase seeks to capture the implicit information within the text and make it explicit for readers today. It is based on the CBC translation and uses italic text to provide the most salient background information, presuppositions, entailments, and inferences.
| Expanded paraphrase legend | |
|---|---|
| Close but Clear (CBC) translation | The CBC, our close but clear translation of the Hebrew, is represented in bold text. |
| Assumptions | Assumptions which provide background information, presuppositions, entailments, and inferences are represented in italics. |
| Text (Hebrew) | Verse | Expanded Paraphrase |
|---|---|---|
| לַ֭מְנַצֵּחַ עַל־אַיֶּ֥לֶת הַשַּׁ֗חַר מִזְמ֥וֹר לְדָוִֽד׃ | 1 | For the director. According to "The Doe of the Dawn." A psalm. By David. |
| אֵלִ֣י אֵ֭לִי לָמָ֣ה עֲזַבְתָּ֑נִי רָח֥וֹק מִֽ֝ישׁוּעָתִ֗י דִּבְרֵ֥י שַׁאֲגָתִֽי׃ | 2 | My God, my God, I am at the end of my crying out. Normally, I enjoy and can even expect your presence, but now I do not, so I ask why have you abandoned me? [Why are you] far from my protection, [far from] my words of groaning? There is no one helping me—if you are not here to protect me, no one will. |
| אֱֽלֹהַ֗י אֶקְרָ֣א י֭וֹמָם וְלֹ֣א תַעֲנֶ֑ה וְ֝לַ֗יְלָה וְֽלֹא־דֽוּמִיָּ֥ה לִֽי׃ | 3 | My God, I cry out by day but you do not answer; and by night, and I do not stop; I am not silent. |
| וְאַתָּ֥ה קָד֑וֹשׁ י֝וֹשֵׁ֗ב תְּהִלּ֥וֹת יִשְׂרָאֵֽל׃ | 4 | But you are holy, the one sitting enthroned on Israel's songs of praise, because your continual loyalty gave Israel continual reason to recognize your faithful rule and their king. |
| בְּ֭ךָ בָּטְח֣וּ אֲבֹתֵ֑ינוּ בָּ֝טְח֗וּ וַֽתְּפַלְּטֵֽמוֹ׃ | 5 | Indeed, after rescuing them in the Exodus event, you became Israel's praise (Deut 10:21). Even when they, too, had dangerous situations, our ancestors trusted you; they trusted and you rescued them. |
| אֵלֶ֣יךָ זָעֲק֣וּ וְנִמְלָ֑טוּ בְּךָ֖ בָטְח֣וּ וְלֹא־בֽוֹשׁוּ׃ | 6 | They called to you and they were delivered; they trusted you and they were not disappointed. I can expect you to answer me now because of your faithfulness to previous generations. I, too, can expect not to be disappointed. |
| וְאָנֹכִ֣י תוֹלַ֣עַת וְלֹא־אִ֑ישׁ חֶרְפַּ֥ת אָ֝דָ֗ם וּבְז֥וּי עָֽם׃ | 7 | But, since you have not answered me, I am considered as insignificant as a worm and less than human— not a man; those who see me conclude I am not really trusting you, that obviously I have done something to deserve this, and that I am responsible for my own suffering, so I am scorned by mankind and despised by people. |
| כָּל־רֹ֭אַי יַלְעִ֣גוּ לִ֑י יַפְטִ֥ירוּ בְ֝שָׂפָ֗ה יָנִ֥יעוּ רֹֽאשׁ׃ | 8 | Everyone who sees me mocks me; they open [their] mouth wide; they shake [their] head and say, mockingly, |
| גֹּ֣ל אֶל־יְהוָ֣ה יְפַלְּטֵ֑הוּ יַ֝צִּילֵ֗הוּ כִּ֘י חָ֥פֵֽץ בּֽוֹ׃ | 9 | "Commit [it] to YHWH! —Let him rescue him; let him deliver him, because he is pleased with him." Since you are not answering me, they have concluded that you cannot be pleased with me. |
| כִּֽי־אַתָּ֣ה גֹחִ֣י מִבָּ֑טֶן מַ֝בְטִיחִ֗י עַל־שְׁדֵ֥י אִמִּֽי׃ | 10 | However, I have trusted you since birth. You brought me into being; you cannot leave me destitute. You are the one who took me out of the womb, who made me feel secure upon my mother's breasts. |
| עָ֭לֶיךָ הָשְׁלַ֣כְתִּי מֵרָ֑חֶם מִבֶּ֥טֶן אִ֝מִּ֗י אֵ֣לִי אָֽתָּה׃ | 11 | I have been cast upon you from the womb; you have been my God from my mother's womb. You were faithful to protect me then; you should be faithful to protect me now. |
| אַל־תִּרְחַ֣ק מִ֭מֶּנִּי כִּי־צָרָ֣ה קְרוֹבָ֑ה כִּי־אֵ֥ין עוֹזֵֽר׃ | 12 | Since I normally enjoy and can therefore expect your presence and proximity, I request that you do not be far from me, because trouble is near and there is no escape; because there is no one helping. In your absence, helping me in my suffering would stain people's social reputation, since they consider me responsible and deserving of my suffering. Instead, people take advantage of my situation. |
| סְ֭בָבוּנִי פָּרִ֣ים רַבִּ֑ים אַבִּירֵ֖י בָשָׁ֣ן כִּתְּרֽוּנִי׃ | 13 | My enemies are like dangerous animals who threaten me. Many proud and strong bulls have surrounded me, so I am outnumbered; mighty ones of Bashan have surrounded me. There is no way I can match their strength. |
| פָּצ֣וּ עָלַ֣י פִּיהֶ֑ם אַ֝רְיֵ֗ה טֹרֵ֥ף וְשֹׁאֵֽג׃ | 14 | They have opened their mouth wide against me to devour me like a mauling and roaring lion, warning off anyone else who might get involved to help. |
| כַּמַּ֥יִם נִשְׁפַּכְתִּי֮ וְהִתְפָּֽרְד֗וּ כָּֽל־עַצְמ֫וֹתָ֥י הָיָ֣ה לִ֭בִּי כַּדּוֹנָ֑ג נָ֝מֵ֗ס בְּת֣וֹךְ מֵעָֽי׃ | 15 | I am terrified. I can barely stand nor move. I am poured out like water into the dusty ground and all my bones are disjointed —there's nothing keeping me together; out of terror, my heart has become like wax— it has melted within my interior and there is no way to put the pieces back together. |
| יָ֘בֵ֤שׁ כַּחֶ֨רֶשׂ ׀ כֹּחִ֗י וּ֭לְשׁוֹנִי מֻדְבָּ֣ק מַלְקוֹחָ֑י וְֽלַעֲפַר־מָ֥וֶת תִּשְׁפְּתֵֽנִי׃ | 16 | My strength has dried up like a potsherd, brittle and thrown out as useless, and my tongue clings to the roof of my mouth; I am as good as dead; you place me in the dust of death —yes, you are ultimately to blame. |
| כִּ֥י סְבָב֗וּנִי כְּלָ֫בִ֥ים עֲדַ֣ת מְ֭רֵעִים הִקִּיפ֑וּנִי *כָּאֲרוּ* יָדַ֥י וְרַגְלָֽי׃ | 17 | For greedy scavenging dogs have surrounded me, considering me an unclean evildoer, a company of evildoers has encompassed me, they have pierced my hands and my feet so I cannot defend myself or run. |
| אֲסַפֵּ֥ר כָּל־עַצְמוֹתָ֑י הֵ֥מָּה יַ֝בִּ֗יטוּ יִרְאוּ־בִֽי׃ | 18 | I am so weak and frail that I can count all my bones; but the onlookers— they look, gazing at me, taking satisfaction in my circumstances and anticipating my death. |
| יְחַלְּק֣וּ בְגָדַ֣י לָהֶ֑ם וְעַל־לְ֝בוּשִׁ֗י יַפִּ֥ילוּ גוֹרָֽל׃ | 19 | They divide my clothes among themselves and cast a lot for my garment, as if I were already dead. |
| וְאַתָּ֣ה יְ֭הוָה אַל־תִּרְחָ֑ק אֱ֝יָלוּתִ֗י לְעֶזְרָ֥תִי חֽוּשָׁה׃ | 20 | But you, YHWH, don't be far! My strength, hurry to my aid! |
| הַצִּ֣ילָה מֵחֶ֣רֶב נַפְשִׁ֑י מִיַּד־כֶּ֝֗לֶב יְחִידָתִֽי׃ | 21 | Rescue my life from a sword, my only [life] from a dog's power. |
| ה֭וֹשִׁיעֵנִי מִפִּ֣י אַרְיֵ֑ה וּמִקַּרְנֵ֖י רֵמִ֣ים עֲנִיתָֽנִי׃ | 22 | Save me from a lion's mouth! And from wild oxen's horns— wait, you have answered me! Even though you have not rescued me yet, I know now that you will. |
| אֲסַפְּרָ֣ה שִׁמְךָ֣ לְאֶחָ֑י בְּת֖וֹךְ קָהָ֣ל אֲהַלְלֶֽךָּ׃ | 23 | And when you do, I will announce your name to my brothers so they will all know who you are and what you are all about; I will praise you in the midst of the community. |
| יִרְאֵ֤י יְהוָ֨ה ׀ הַֽלְל֗וּהוּ כָּל־זֶ֣רַע יַעֲקֹ֣ב כַּבְּד֑וּהוּ וְג֥וּרוּ מִ֝מֶּ֗נּוּ כָּל־זֶ֥רַע יִשְׂרָאֵֽל׃ | 24 | So you, too, those who fear YHWH, praise him with me! All you offspring of Jacob, honor him! And be in awe of him, all you offspring of Israel! Do not even think about accusing him of any injustice! |
| כִּ֤י לֹֽא־בָזָ֨ה וְלֹ֪א שִׁקַּ֡ץ עֱנ֬וּת עָנִ֗י וְלֹא־הִסְתִּ֣יר פָּנָ֣יו מִמֶּ֑נּוּ וּֽבְשַׁוְּע֖וֹ אֵלָ֣יו שָׁמֵֽעַ׃ | 25 | Because he has not regarded as worthless nor detestable the sufferer's affliction. In fact, Suffering itself has its purposes and is something valuable in YHWH's eyes. And he has not, in fact, hidden his face from him. YHWH does not ignore the afflicted; but he heard when he cried to him for help, so my crying out was not in vain, after all. |
| מֵ֥אִתְּךָ֗ תְֽהִלָּ֫תִ֥י בְּקָהָ֥ל רָ֑ב נְדָרַ֥י אֲ֝שַׁלֵּ֗ם נֶ֣גֶד יְרֵאָֽיו׃ | 26 | My praise among a great community is because of you and what you have done for me; I will fulfill my vows of thanksgiving offerings in the presence of those who fear him, so that they will have reason to celebrate with me. |
| יֹאכְל֬וּ עֲנָוִ֨ים ׀ וְיִשְׂבָּ֗עוּ יְהַֽלְל֣וּ יְ֭הוָה דֹּ֣רְשָׁ֑יו יְחִ֖י לְבַבְכֶ֣ם לָעַֽד׃ | 27 | After being rescued and saved, I will organize a fellowship meal, so that the afflicted will eat and be satisfied; They can take comfort and expect the same outcome as my affliction, recognizing that it is not in vain to seek you—they will end up praising you in their deliverance, too! Indeed, those who seek him will praise YHWH— I will offer a toast: may your heart live forever! |
| יִזְכְּר֤וּ ׀ וְיָשֻׁ֣בוּ אֶל־יְ֭הוָה כָּל־אַפְסֵי־אָ֑רֶץ וְיִֽשְׁתַּחֲו֥וּ לְ֝פָנֶ֗יךָ כָּֽל־מִשְׁפְּח֥וֹת גּוֹיִֽם׃ | 28 | The result of you delivering me is much bigger than this community—YHWH is due all praise from his earthly subjects everywhere. Nevertheless, they are currently far off, so, let all the ends of the earth consider when they hear what YHWH has done, so that they will turn to YHWH, so that all the families of the nations will worship before you, fulfilling your ancient promise that all the families of the earth would be blessed, |
| כִּ֣י לַ֭יהוָה הַמְּלוּכָ֑ה וּ֝מֹשֵׁ֗ל בַּגּוֹיִֽם׃ | 29 | because kingship belongs to YHWH and he rules over the nations, so he is due all praise from his earthy subjects everywhere. |
| אָכְל֬וּ וַיִּֽשְׁתַּחֲוּ֨וּ ׀ כָּֽל־דִּשְׁנֵי־אֶ֗רֶץ לְפָנָ֣יו יִ֭כְרְעוּ כָּל־יוֹרְדֵ֣י עָפָ֑ר וְ֝נַפְשׁ֗וֹ לֹ֣א חִיָּֽה׃ | 30 | The poor and afflicted have been joined by those who feel healthy and prosperous. So all the strong ones of the earth have eaten and worshiped; but their health cannot save them from the inevitable: all those going down to dust will kneel before him, and even if he, YHWH, did not preserve their life as he did mine, even if, after participating in this fellowship meal, they did not experience the same deliverance I have, |
| זֶ֥רַע יַֽעַבְדֶ֑נּוּ יְסֻפַּ֖ר לַֽאדֹנָ֣י לַדּֽוֹר׃ | 31 | their offspring in future generations will serve him anyway; it will be proclaimed concerning the Lord to that generation that YHWH does not abandon, after all, and that he has acted justly towards his creation — |
| יָ֭בֹאוּ וְיַגִּ֣ידוּ צִדְקָת֑וֹ לְעַ֥ם נ֝וֹלָ֗ד כִּ֣י עָשָֽׂה׃ | 32 | Let them, the strong ones of the earth, come so that they tell his righteous deed to a people who will be born—what he has done for me. |
Story Triangles
(Click diagram to enlarge)
| "I can count all my bones" (v. 18) | ||
| physical reality | hyperbole | |
|---|---|---|
| Fully true | a dead, exposed skeleton | the psalmist feels his flesh is as good as decayed
|
| Partially true | a very thin and frail person | the psalmist feels frail and lacks strength |
| Blend | David's flesh has been poured out and left without strength (cf. vv. 15–16) | |
| Implicatures |
| |
| Prominence | HIGH
Whether hyperbolic or not, the image is portrayed as a reality. The verb "I can count" is the central word of the psalm, with high structural prominence, and begins the important pattern of this repeated root (cf. the psalm's turning point in v. 23 and the conclusion in v. 31). | |
| "Many bulls have surrounded me; mighty ones of Bashan have surrounded me. | ||
| bull | David's enemies | |
|---|---|---|
| Predator | bull | enemies
|
| Prey | smaller animal | David
|
| Weapon | horns | manipulation, cursing, mockery
|
| Number/size | many... mighty ones of Bashan | numerous and large
|
| Action | mauling, impaling | physical threats
|
| Attitude | proud and self-reliant | proud and self-reliant [4] |
| Blend | David's enemies are as threatening as a herd of bulls | |
| Implicatures |
| |
| Prominence | MEDIUM
The image is repeated in vv. 13–14 and 22. Accompanied by dogs, lions and swords/piercing, they appear in symmetrical order and summarize the physical threat of David's enemies throughout vv. 13–22. | |
| "For dogs have surrounded me ... Rescue my life from a sword, | ||
| dog | David's enemies | |
|---|---|---|
| Predator | dog | enemies
|
| Nature of hunting | scavenging corpses [5] | taking advantage of the (almost dead) psalmist
|
| Weapon | hand (power) (SDBH) | dangerous social schemes
|
| Number | plural | plural
|
| Nature | unclean (SDBH) | ironically (!) unclean
|
| Attitude | greedy | greedy |
| Blend | David's enemies are as threatening as a pack of dogs | |
| Implicatures |
| |
| Prominence | MEDIUM
The image is repeated in vv. 17 and 21. Accompanied by lions, bulls and swords/piercing, they appear in symmetrical order and summarize the physical threat of David's enemies throughout vv. 13–22. | |
| "the one sitting enthroned on Israel’s songs of praise" (v. 4) | ||
| physical throne | Israel's praise | |
|---|---|---|
| Position | within a royal palace | within the congregation of YHWH's people
|
| Function (1) | to prop up the king in his exalted state | to recognize YHWH's exalted state
|
| Function (2) | to indicate kingship (cf v. 29) | to recognize YHWH's kingship
|
| Stability | the king is continually sitting and ruling | Israel's praise is constant |
| Blend | YHWH's throne is composed of praise | |
| Implicatures |
| |
| Prominence | HIGH
The image is used in a unique vocative expression. It is placed in a negative section of the discourse, such that the positive appellation of YHWH increases its significance. The root הלל becomes important later on in the psalm (see vv. 23, 24, 26, 27) and is hinted at in the psalm's first half only here. | |
| "They have opened their mouth wide against me like a mauling and roaring lion ... | ||
| lion | David's enemies | |
|---|---|---|
| Predator | lion | enemies
|
| Prey | smaller animal | David
|
| Weapon | mouth | manipulation, cursing, mockery
|
| Action | tearing and roaring | physical and verbal threats
|
| Attitude | aggressive (SDBH) | aggressive |
| Blend | David's enemies are as threatening as lions | |
| Implicatures |
| |
| Prominence | MEDIUM
The image is repeated in vv. 14 and 22. Accompanied by dogs, bulls and swords/piercing, they appear in symmetrical order and summarize the physical threat of David's enemies throughout vv. 13–22. | |
| "However, you are the one who took me out of the womb, who made me feel secure upon my mother’s breasts. | ||
| midwife | YHWH | |
|---|---|---|
| Characteristic | trustworthy | trustworthy
|
| Characteristic | qualified to fulfill their role | qualified to fulfill his role
|
| Function | leads into life | preserves in life (v. 30)
|
| Function | legitimizes baby's birth | legitimizes David's existence[6]
|
| Function | catches the helpless baby | rescues the helpless psalmist
|
| Function | protects baby | protects David[7] |
| Blend | YHWH was David's midwife and primary care-giver | |
| Implicatures |
| |
| Prominence | MEDIUM
The image is rare, though not unique (see Ps 71:5–6). Nevertheless, it occupies two whole verses and provides the grounds for which YHWH should care for David in the present moment—namely, he has done it his whole life. | |
| "My strength has dried up like a potsherd" (v. 16) | ||
| potsherd | David's physiology | |
|---|---|---|
| Physical characteristics | brittle and weak | brittle and weak
|
| Physical characteristics | totally lacking moisture | totally lacking vigor and strength (Ps 32:4)
|
| Physical characteristics | sharp | dangerous to be around
|
| Function | useless, to be thrown out | socially useless |
| Blend | David's remaining strength is brittle and useless | |
| Implicatures |
| |
| Prominence | MEDIUM
The image is introduced by an explicit simile and vividly portrays the psalmist's physical condition (Cf. Ps 32:4). It is found in the list of physical effects of the psalmist's suffering throughout vv. 15–16 (cf. my bones, my heart, my tongue) and provides the counterpoint to images such as water and wax, which draw upon liquid states—here the opposite is the case, and the psalmist could use a little moisture (see the following clause). | |
| "I am poured out like water" (v. 15) | ||
| water | David's physiology | |
|---|---|---|
| Substance | fluid | enemies
|
| Nature | unstable | out of David's control
|
| Container | solid materials | David's (disjointed and visible) skeletal structure (vv. 15, 18)
|
| Volition | does not choose to be poured out | someone else is responsible (v. 16)
|
| Result | left to seep into the soil | left in the dust of death (v. 16) |
| Blend | David's life is as unstable and ephemeral as water that is poured out | |
| Implicatures |
| |
| Prominence | MEDIUM
The image is introduced by an explicit simile and vividly portrays the psalmist's physical condition. It introduces the list of physical effects of the psalmist's suffering throughout vv. 15–16, finding an inclusio in the two remarks concerning the psalmist's entire being, not limited to one body part (cf. v. 16c). | |
| "my heart has become like wax— it has melted within my interior." (v. 15) | ||
| wax | David's physiology | |
|---|---|---|
| Reaction | melts with fire/heat | dissolves with the fiery suffering
|
| Composition | changeable states | unstable
|
| Change of state | solid to liquid | robust to unrecognizable |
| Blend | dissolves with the fiery suffering unstable robust to unrecognizable David's heart is as unstable as wax that melts | |
| Implicatures |
| |
| Prominence | MEDIUM
The image is introduced by an explicit simile and vividly portrays the psalmist's physical condition. It is found in the list of physical effects of the psalmist's suffering throughout vv. 15–16 (cf. my bones, my strength, my tongue) and reinforces the effect of water being poured out earlier in the verse. | |
| "But I am a worm and not a man" (v. 7) | ||
| animal | people's estimation of the psalmist | |
|---|---|---|
| Position | in the dirt | in the dust of death (v. 16)
|
| Size | small | insignificant (v. 13)
|
| Association | decay | impending death (v. 19)
|
| Social importance | not cared for by society | rejected by society (v. 8)
|
| Social standing | unclean (Lev 14:41–42) | ritually unclean; not to be helped |
| Blend | David is as insignificant and unclean as a worm | |
| Implicatures |
| |
| Prominence | MEDIUM
The image is introduced by metaphor (not simile) and thus takes on extra prominence as being a worm, not being like a worm. At the same time, the assertion implicitly takes on the words of his mocking onlookers, not his own assessment of himself. | |
Bibliography
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- Alonso Schökel, Luis. 1992. Salmos I (Salmos 1–72): Traducción, Introducciones y Comentario. Navarra: Verbo Divino.
- Baker, David W. 1980. "Further examples of waw explicativum," Vetus Testamentum 30.2: 129–136.
- Bratcher, Robert G. and Reyburn, William David. 1991. A Translator’s Handbook on the Book of Psalms, UBS Handbook Series. New York, NY: United Bible Societies.
- Craigie, Peter C. 2004. Psalms 1–50. Second edition. Nashville, TN: Nelson.
- Crystal, D. & Yu. A. C. L. 2024. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 7th Edition. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.
- Delitzsch, Franz. 1871. Biblical Commentary on the Psalms: Vol. 1. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.
- Gentry, Peter. 2021. Are the Superscriptions in the Psalms Part of Scripture?
- Goldingay John. 2006. Psalms 1–41. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.
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- Jenni, Ernst. 2000. Die Hebräischen Präpositionen Band 3: Die Präposition Lamed. Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer.
- Keel, Othmar. 1997. The Symbolism of the Biblical World: Ancient Near Eastern Iconography and the Book of Psalms. Winona Lake, Ind: Eisenbrauns.
- Lipiński. Édouard. 1969. "L'hymne à Yahwé Roi au Psaume 22,28-32," Biblica 50.2: 153–168.
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- Malul, Meir. 1996. "Chapter 22" (Hebrew). Pages 94–105 in Psalms: Volume 1. Olam HaTaNaKh. Tel Aviv: דודזון–עתי.
- Mowinckel, Sigmund. 1962. The Psalms in Israel’s Worship. Oxford: Blackwell.
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- Revell, E. J. 1996. The Designation of the Individual: Expressive Usage in Biblical Narrative. Kampen: Kok Pharos.
- VanGemeren, Willem. 2008. Psalms: The Expositor's Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.
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- Wendland, Ernst. 1993, Comparative Discourse Analysis and the Translation of Psalm 22 in Chichewa, a Bantu Language of South-Central Africa. Lewiston/Queenston/Lampeter: The Edwin Mellen Press.
- Wilton, Patrick. 1994. "More cases of waw explicativum," Vetus Testamentum 44.1: 125–128.
Footnotes
- ↑ Common-ground assumptions include information shared by the speaker and hearers. In our analysis, we mainly use this category for Biblical/ANE background - beliefs and practices that were widespread at this time and place. This is the background information necessary for understanding propositions that do not readily make sense to those who are so far removed from the culture in which the proposition was originally expressed.
- ↑ Local-ground assumptions are those propositions which are necessarily true if the text is true. They include both presuppositions and entailments. Presuppositions are those implicit propositions which are assumed to be true by an explicit proposition. Entailments are those propositions which are necessarily true if a proposition is true.
- ↑ Whereas local-ground assumptions are inferences which are necessarily true if the text is true, play-ground assumptions are those inferences which might be true if the text is true.
- ↑ VanGemeren 2008, 242.
- ↑ Goldingay 2006, 333.
- ↑ Keel 1997, 202.
- ↑ Keel 1997, 202.