The Text and Meaning of Ps 49:8a

Introduction

The MT of Ps 49:8 reads as follows:

אָ֗ח לֹא־פָדֹ֣ה יִפְדֶּ֣ה אִ֑ישׁ לֹא־יִתֵּ֖ן לֵאלֹהִ֣ים כָּפְרֽוֹ׃

The first half of this verse (אָ֗ח לֹא־פָדֹ֣ה יִפְדֶּ֣ה אִ֑ישׁ) is problematic and is variously represented among modern translations. For example:

• No man can by any means redeem his brother Or give to God a ransom for him—... (NASB1995)
• Truly no man can ransom another, or give to God the price of his life, ... (ESVUK)
• But no one can by any means redeem himself. He cannot give God a ransom for himself—... (EHV)

There are three main difficulties in the interpretation of v. 8a.

1. One difficulty is presented by the word אָח. Some translations take it as meaning "brother", which is the subject of פָדֹה יִפְדֶּה (literally, “a brother cannot redeem a man”; e.g., LSV; YLT). Other translations treat אָח/"brother" as the object of פָדֹה יִפְדֶּה (literally, “a man cannot redeem a brother”; e.g., NASB1995; NKJV). Still others understand אָח as the interjection "truly, by no means" (e.g., ESVUK).
2. Another challenging point is the binyan of יפדה. Those who read the MT's אָח as meaning "brother" (either as subject or object of יפדה) follow the MT's vocalization of the verb as qal (יִפְדֶּה), understanding the act of redemption as carried out for another individual (NASB1995). Those who read the MT's אָח as an interjection render יפדה as a reflexive niphal (יִפָּדֶה), i.e., “to redeem oneself” (EHV).

Argument Maps

The Meaning and Function of אָח

"Brother," subject of פָדֹה יִפְדֶּה

The word אָח can be understood as a "brother" (cf. the LXX; cf. εβρ, α', σ', ε', ς', Hebr, S). Adopting this reading, several modern translations take this individual as the subject of פָדֹה יִפְדֶּה. E.g., "A brother ransoms no one at all, He does not give to God his atonement" (LSV; cf. YLT).

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["Brother," subject]: אָח means "brother" and is the subject in the clause: "A brother ransoms no one at all, He does not give to God his atonement" (LSV). #dispreferred
 -<Idiomatic Usage>: For “a brother cannot redeem a man,” the idiom would require אִישׁ…אָחִיו or אִישׁ…רֵעֵהוּ instead of אָח…אִישׁ (Briggs and Briggs 1906, 413 :C:; Gross 1972, 65–70 :A:).
   + [Idiomatic Usage]: E.g., Gen 9:5; Deut 15:2; Isa 19:2; Jer 34:14, cf. 15,17; Ezek 38:21; Joel 2:8; Hag 2:22
 + <Ancient Versions>: Some of the ancient versions support reading אָח as "brother" functioning as the subject of the clause (cf. Barthélemy 2005, 288-289 :M:). #dispreferred
  + [Peshitta]: Peshitta: "A brother (ܐܚܐ) cannot save" (Taylor 2020, 189 :M:).#dispreferred
  + [LXX]: LXX: "A brother does not ransom; shall anyone ransom?" (NETS, cf. Aquila, Symmachus).#dispreferred
   <_ <LXX's Different Syntax>: Although the LXX understands אָח as “brother” functioning as the subject of the clause, it translates פָדֹה and יִפְדֶּה as two finite verbs belonging to two separate clauses (“a brother does not ransom, shall anyone ransom?”; NETS).

"Brother," object of פָדֹה יִפְדֶּה

Some understand the word אָח as the fronted accusative, reading v. 8 as "No man can by any means redeem his brother or give to God a ransom for him..." F. Delitzsch, for example, states, "The words as they stand assert: a brother (אח, as a prominently placed object, with Rebia magnum, = אהיו, cf. Eze 5:10; Eze 18:18; Mic 7:6; Mal 1:6) can a man by no means redeem, i.e., men cannot redeem one another... Among men certainly it is possible under some circumstances for one who is delivered over to death to be freed by money, but no כפר (= פדיון נפש, Exo 21:30 and frequently) can be given to God (לאלהים)." The majority of translations follow suit: e.g., "No man can by any means redeem his brother Or give to God a ransom for him—" (NASB; cf. NET; KJV; LSB; ELB; EÜ; NBS; RVR95; BTX4; RST; NRT; UKR; BULG).

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["Brother," object]: אָח means "brother" and is the object of the clause: "No man can by any means redeem his brother Or give to God a ransom for him—" (NASB).#dispreferred
 + <Ancient Versions>: Some of the ancient versions support reading אָח as "brother" functioning as the object of the clause (cf. Barthélemy 2005, 288-289 :M:). #dispreferred
  + [Jerome (iuxta Hebr.)]: Jerome (iuxta Hebr.): fratrem redimens non redimet vir nec dabit Deo propitiationem pro eo. #dispreferred
  + [Targum]: Targum: "A wicked man will surely not redeem his brother who has been taken captive" (Stec 2004, 102 :M:).#dispreferred
 + <Idiomatic Usage of "Brother">: The Hebrew Bible attests to the idiom אִישׁ אָחִיו, in which אִישׁ is the subject and אָחִיו is the object. #dispreferred
  + ["Brother" in Idioms]: E.g., Exod 10:23 לֹֽא־רָא֞וּ אִ֣ישׁ אֶת־אָחִ֗יו #dispreferred
   <_<אָח with a Suffix>: These occurrences usually have a suffix on אָח.
   <_<Further Idioms>: Per usual Hebrew usage, idioms either have אִישׁ offering ransom for another אִישׁ or אִישׁ redeeming his "neighbor"/רֵעֵהוּ or אֶחָד or קְרֹבוֺ. The second member in this idiom (the one acted upon) usually has a suffix.
    + [Idioms]: Deut 15:2; Isa 19:2; Jer 34:14, cf. 15,17; Ezek 38:21; Hag 2:22.

Interjection (preferred)

The word אָח can be taken as an interjection, signifying, in this context, emphasis. E.g., "Ah, it [impersonally] cannot redeem a man, or pay his ransom to God; ..." (JPS1985) or "Surely a man cannot redeem himself and pay to God his ransom?" Accordingly, P. Craigie explains, "For all a person’s wealth, he cannot redeem himself; the world’s richest person could not afford his own ransom (v. 8)... When facing death, the ultimate leveler of all human beings, wealth would finally be useless."

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[Interjection]: The word אָח can be taken as an interjection, providing more emphasis to an already emphatic statement. E.g., "Surely a man cannot redeem himself and pay to God his ransom?"(Craigie 1983, 357 :M:).
 + <Word Order>: Given its position (clause-initial), אָח is most likely the onomatopoeic interjection אַךְ (cf. BDB 25a :L:; BHS). 
 + <אַךְ vs אָח>: If it were an interjection, we would expect אַךְ and not אָח. #dispreferred
  <_ <Manuscript Evidence>: Eight Hebrew manuscripts have the onomatopoeic אַךְ in place of אָח.
  <_ <Alternative Writing.>: אָח could be a case of an alternative (a careless?) form of writing for אָח (Ewald 1886, npn :C:; Hitzig 1884, npn :C:).
   + [Ezekiel 18:10]: וְהֹולִ֥יד בֵּן־פָּרִ֖יץ שֹׁפֵ֣ךְ דָּ֑ם וְעָ֣שָׂה אָ֔ח מֵאַחַ֖ד מֵאֵֽלֶּה (“Suppose he has a violent son, who sheds blood or does any of these other things"; NIV). Cf. Ezek 21:20(15).
    <_<אָח in Ezek 18:10>: There is no agreement on the meaning and role of אָח in Ezek 10:10, with some translations taking it as "brother" (e.g., NASV; LSB; AV).#dispreferred
 + <Emphatic Rhetoric>: Psalm 49 uses particularly emphatic rhetoric in its discourse on death and the impossibility of redemption from it. אָח as an interjection fits well as part of that rhetoric (cf. Craigie 1983, 357 :C:; Goldingay 2007, 96 :C:; van der Lugt 2010, 69 :M:).  
  + [Psalm 49:16a]: Dealing with the issue of redemption from death and utilizing the root פדה, Ps 49:16 also features an interjection: "But/אַךְ God will redeem me from the realm of the dead..." (NIV).
 + <אַךְ + פדה תפדה>: The Hebrew Bible attests to the combination of the interjection אַךְ with inf. abs. + yiqtol of פדה. 
  + [Numbers 18:15b]: "But you must redeem/אַ֣ךְ ׀ פָּדֹ֣ה תִפְדֶּ֗ה every firstborn son and every firstborn male of unclean animals" (NIV).
 + <אַךְ in Cultic Contexts and Contexts of Redemption>: The interjection is often featured in cultic settings indicating emphasis or used in a restrictive sense. The sequence of clause-initial אַךְ followed by a double negation in these texts echoes the syntax of Ps 49:8.  
  + [Leviticus 27:28]: 'Nevertheless/אַךְ, anything which a man sets apart to the LORD out of all that he has,..., shall not be sold or redeemed/לֹ֥א יִמָּכֵ֖ר וְלֹ֣א יִגָּאֵ֑ל...." (cf. Lev 27:26-27).

The Morphology of יפדה

Niphal (יִפָּדֶה) (preferred)

Taking אָח as the interjection אַךְ calls for the revocalization of יִפְדֶּה, a qal, as a niphal. According to SDBH, the verb פדה designates "an action by which humans exchange animals or other humans by substituting them with money or with an(other) animal, as a result of which they will escape death or slavery." In niphal, it would mean "to be redeemed." In Ps 49:8, revocalized as niphal, the verb פדה would function in a reflexive sense, i.e., “to redeem oneself”---"Truly no man can ransom himself, or give to God the price of his life,..." (RSV; cf. NEB; REB; GNT; NJB; NLT; AB; DHH).

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[Niphal]: יִפְדֶּה should be revocalized as a niphal and interpreted in a reflexive sense, i.e., “to redeem oneself.” 
 - <Hebrew Conventions>: One way to communicate the idea of redeeming oneself here would be to use לֹא־פָדֹ֣ה יִפְדֶּ֣ה נַפְשׁוֹ rather than a niphal verb (Delitzsch 2014 :C:). #dispreferred
 - <פדה in Niphal>: פדה in niphal appears only 3 times in the Hebrew Bible, and all three occurrences seem to be passive instead of reflexive. #dispreferred
  + [פדה in Niphal]: Lev 19:20; 27:29; Isa 1:27 #dispreferred
  <_<גאל in Niphal>: גאל in niphal is attested in a reflexive sense.
   + [Leviticus 25:48a-49]
 + <Law of Redemption of Persons>: According to Leviticus 25, an Israelite sold to a wealthy foreigner can be redeemed according to "the go’él chain", consisting of brothers, father’s brothers, nearest flesh relative. The chain ends with the possibility of self-redemption, which is formulated via  גאל in a reflexive niphal (Milgrom 2001, 2237-2239 :C:).  
  + [Leviticus 25:48a-49]: "One of their relatives may redeem them: 49 An uncle or a cousin or any blood relative in their clan may redeem them. Or if they prosper, they may redeem themselves/וְנִגְאָֽל." 
 + <Niphal of פדה in Psalm 49>: Given Psalm 49's polemic against self-reliance and trust in riches and the law of redemption in Leviticus 25 featuring גאל, Psalm 49 favores פדה, a business-esque term. Speaking of the impossibility of self-redemption, the psalm, in one stroke, circumvents the possibility of the whole of "the go’él chain" (Lev 25:48-49). Using the niphal of פדה as opposed to גאל, it reflects the business-like disposition of the psalmist's arrogant and self-reliant opponents.
  + <פדה vs גאל>: Although the two terms can be used interchangeably, פדה is often linked to contexts of economic transactions, whereas גאל is featured in procedures related to redemption of blood relatives (cf. Sundermeier 1993, 134).  
   + [פדה vs גאל]: See Lev 25:48-49; Num 35:16-28; Ruth 2, 3.
 - <Need for Further Changes to the MT>: Revocalizing the yiqtol as a niphal would require emending the text so that the inf. abs. is also a niphal (נפדה or הפדה).#dispreferred 
  + [Niphal Inf. Abs. with Niphal]: E.g., Exod 22:3; Ezek 14:3.#dispreferred 
  - <Qal Inf. Abs. with Niphal>: The inf. abs. in qal does appear with verbal forms in other derived binyanim, especially with niphal (GK 113w :G:). 
    + [Qal Inf. Abs. with Niphal]: Exod 19:13; 31:20: 2 Sam 23:7; Isa 40:30; Jer 10:5; Job 6:2 (GK113w :G:). 
 + <Context>: Psalm 49 focuses on the foolishness of self-reliance and trust in one's material possessions. In this context, it makes sense that the psalm would deny the ability of someone to redeem themselves with their own wealth.
  + [Psalm 49:7]: "They trust in their wealth and boast in their great riches."
  + [Psalm 49:12]: "...they name lands with their names."
  + [Psalm 49:17-18]: "... another person becomes rich, when the wealth of his house increases. For he will not take all of it, when he dies. His wealth will not go down after him."
  + [Psalm 49:19]: "... in his life, he blesses himself..."
 + <Wealth as a ransom>: It is plausible that the rich would have imagined that they could redeem themselves with their wealth.
  + [Prov 13:8]: Regarding individuals of means, Prov 13:8 states that "the ransom of a man's life is his wealth" (כֹּ֣פֶר נֶֽפֶשׁ־אִ֣ישׁ עָשְׁרֹ֑ו.).
 + <אָח as Interjection>: If אָח is an interjection and not a noun (see argument map above), then the verb יפדה would have only one argument (a subject: אִישׁ), and so it is most likely a niphal.

Qal (יִפְדֶּה)

The MT's יִפְדֶּה is vocalized as a qal and is taken as such by many ancient witnesses (the LXX, εβρ, α', σ', ε', ς', Hebr, S, T) and modern translations (e.g., NASB1977; NASB 1995; NET; KJV; LSB; ELB; EÜ; NBS; RVR95; BTX4; RST; NRT; UKR; BULG).

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[Qal]: יִפְדֶּה should be taken as is, i.e., qal, “to redeem”.#dispreferred
 - <Context>: In Psalm 49, the psalmist juxtaposes himself with self-reliant, wealthy individuals, who trust in material possessions, not in their connections, i.e., other individuals.
  + [Psalm 49:7]: "They trust in their wealth and boast in their great riches."
  + [Psalm 49:12]: "...they name lands with their names."
  + [Psalm 49:17-18]: "... another person becomes rich, when the wealth of his house increases. For he will not take all of it, when he dies. His wealth will not go down after him."
  + [Psalm 49:19]: "... in his life, he blesses himself...".
 + <Support from Witnesses>: The MT and the ancient versions consistently vocalize יפדה as a qal (active) verb.#dispreferred
   + [MT]: יִפְדֶּ֣ה#dispreferred
   + [LXX]: “A brother does not ransom, shall anyone ransom (λυτρώσεται)?” (NETS). #dispreferred
   + [Peshitta]: "A brother cannot save (ܦܪܩ)" (Taylor 2020, 189 :M:).#dispreferred
   + [Jerome]: "No man will redeem (redimet) his brother." #dispreferred
   + [Targum]: "A wicked man will surely not redeem (יפרוק) his brother who has been taken captive, nor will he give to God his ransom, ..." (Stec 2004, 102).#dispreferred
   <_ <Misinterpreting אָח>: These witnesses vocalize יפדה as a qal because they have misinterpreted אָח as a noun ("brother") rather than as an interjection.
 + <Qal Inf. Abs.>: The infinitive absolute is clearly qal (פָדֹה), and so the finite verb יפדה should also be understood as a qal.#dispreferred
  <_ <Qal Inf. Abs. with Niphal>: The qal inf. abs. can appear with verbal forms in other derived binyanim, especially with niphal (GK 113w :G:). 
    + [Qal Inf. Abs. with Niphal]: Exod 19:13; 31:20: 2 Sam 23:7; Isa 40:30; Jer 10:5; Job 6:2 (GK113w :G:). 
 + <אָח as "Brother">: If אָח is a noun ("brother") (see argument map above), then the verb יפדה would have two arguments (a subject and a direct object), and so it must be a qal verb. #dispreferred

Conclusion (B)

On balance, אָח as an interjection and the revocalized יִפָּדֶה are preferable. The reading of אח as the emphatic "surely" or "but/by no means" has good support from a.) manuscript evidence; b.) internal and external biblical evidence; and c.) context. The reflexive take on יִפָּדֶה a.) makes most sense contextually; b.) reflects the law of redemption from Leviticus 25; and c.) is well presented among modern translations. In Psalm 49, the overall thrust of the speaker's discourse indicates that his focus is on the foolishness of self-reliance and trust in one's own material possessions, not the wealth and good-will of others. At this juncture in the psalm (i.e., v. 8), "The [rich] assailants [from v. 7] think they can buy their way forward in life and on into a happy old age. To put it in modern terms, they can buy themselves a band of bodyguards and the best health plan available. In Israel, there were circumstances in which the life of a person could be ransomed (Exod 21:28–32), but this was not invariably possible. It is self-evident that likewise the rich do not always manage to buy themselves long life. The second colon gives the point more precision and explains why. The source of life is God, and it is therefore God to whom the redemption price, the ransom, has to be paid, and God is not committed to letting such a process decide whether people live or die."

Research

Translations

Ancient

• LXX
  • ἀδελφὸς οὐ λυτροῦται λυτρώσεται ἄνθρωπος; οὐ δώσει τῷ θεῷ ἐξίλασμα αὐτοῦ
    • A brother does not ransom; shall anyone ransom? He will not give to God his atonement. (NETS)
• Aquila
  • ἀδελφὸς οὐ λυτρούμενο(ς) λυτρώσεται ἀνήρ οὐ δώσει τῷ θεῷ ἐξίλασμα αὐτοῦ
• Symmachus
  • ἀδελφὸς οὐ λυτροῦται ἵνα λυτρώσηται ἀνήρ οὐ δώσει τῶι θω̅ι εξίλασμα ὑπὲρ ἑαυτοῦ
• Peshitta
  • ܐܚܐ ܠܐ ܦܪܩ܂ ܘܓܒܪܐ ܠܐ ܝܗܒ ܠܐܠܗܐ ܦܘܪܩܢܗ/ܬܘܟܠܢܗ
    • A brother cannot save; a man cannot give to God for his redemption.
• Jerome (Iuxta Hebr)
  • fratrem redimens non redimet vir nec dabit Deo propitiationem pro eo
• Jerome (Iuxta LXX)
  • frater non redimit redimet homo non dabit Deo placationem suam
• Targum
  • אחוהי דאשתבא לא מפרק יפרוק גבר \/רשיעא#1#/ מניכסוי/#1#/ ולא יהב/יתן#1#/ לאלהא פורקניה׃
    • A wicked man will surely not redeem his brother who has been taken captive, nor will he give to God his ransom, ... .

Modern

אח/"brother" as a subject

• A brother ransoms no one at all, He does not give to God his atonement. (LSV)
• A brother doth no one at all ransom, He doth not give to God his atonement. (YLT)

אח/"brother" as an object

• No man can by any means redeem his brother Or give to God a ransom for him—. (NASB)
• Certainly a man cannot rescue his brother; he cannot pay God an adequate ransom price. (NET)
• None of them can by any means redeem his brother, nor give to God a ransom for him: ... (KJV)
• No man can by any means redeem his brother Or give to God a ransom for him—. (NASB1995)
• No man can by any means redeem his brother, Or give to God a ransom for him—. (NASB 1977)
• Truly, no man can redeem his brother; He cannot give to God a ransom for him—. (LSB)
• Niemals kann ein Mann seinen Bruder loskaufen, nicht kann er Gott sein Lösegeld geben –... (ELB)
• Doch kann keiner einen Bruder auslösen, an Gott für ihn ein Sühnegeld zahlen... (EÜ)
• Un homme ne peut libérer son frère, ni donner à Dieu le prix de sa rançon. (NBS)
• ninguno de ellos podrá, en manera alguna, redimir al hermano ni pagar a Dios su rescate (RVR95)
• Ninguno de ellos podrá en modo alguno redimir al hermano, Ni pagar a Elohim su rescate, ... (BTX4)
• человек никак не искупит брата своего и не даст Богу выкупа за него: ... (48:8; RST)
• Никто не в силах искупить брата или дать Богу выкуп за его жизнь:... (48:8; NRT)
• Але жодна людина не викупить брата, не дасть його викупу Богові, ... (UKR)
• Ни един от тях не може никак да изкупи брата си, Нито да даде Богу откуп за него. (BULG)

אח as an object, signifying generally another person or paraphrasing the verse (hence, ambiguous)

• Truly no man can ransom another, or give to God the price of his life, ... (ESV)
• No one can redeem the life of another or give to God a ransom for them—... (NIV)
• Kann doch keiner einen andern auslösen oder für ihn an Gott ein Sühnegeld geben... (Luther 2017)
• Doch niemand kann für das Leben seines Freundes bezahlen, niemand kann ihn bei Gott vom Tod freikaufen. (HFA)
• Doch kein Mensch kann das Leben eines anderen mit Geld verlängern, niemand kann sich bei Gott vom Tod freikaufen. (NGÜ)
• Niemals kann einer den anderen loskaufen, keiner sich freikaufen bei Gott, ... (ZÜR)
• Doch Gott ein Menschenleben abzukaufen ist unmöglich! Auch sein eigenes Leben kann niemand auslösen:... (GNB)
• Ils ne peuvent se libérer l'un l'autre, Ni donner à Dieu le prix de leur rançon. (NVSR)
• Aucun homme, cependant, ╵ne peut racheter un autre. Aucun ne saurait payer ╵à Dieu sa propre rançon. (BDS)
• Mais personne ne peut racheter à Dieu la vie de quelqu’un d’autre, ni donner assez d’argent pour ne pas mourir. (PDV)
• Mais personne n'a les moyens de racheter à Dieu la vie de quelqu'un d'autre ou de lui verser le prix de sa propre vie. (NFC)
• mais ils ne peuvent se racheter l’un l’autre ni donner à Dieu le prix de leur rançon. (S21)
• Nadie puede salvar a nadie ni pagarle a Dios rescate por la vida. (NVI)

אח as the onomatopoeic interjection אך

• Ah, it cannot redeem a man, or pay his ransom to God; ... (JPS1985)

יפדה as a reflexive niphal

• Truly no man can ransom himself, or give to God the price of his life,... (RSV)
• Truly, no ransom avails for one’s life, there is no price one can give to God for it. (NRSVA)
• Alas! no man can ever ransom himself nor pay God the price for that release ... (NEB)
• Alas! no man can ever ransom himself nor pay God the price for his release ... (REB)
• We can never redeem ourselves; we cannot pay God the price for our lives, ... (GNT)
• But no one can ever redeem himself or pay his own ransom to God, ... (NJB)
• Yet they cannot redeem themselves from death by paying a ransom to God. (NLT)
• You cannot buy back your life or pay off God! (CEV)
• None of them can by any means redeem [either himself or] his brother, Nor give to God a ransom for him—... (AB)
• pero nadie puede salvarse a sí mismo ni pagarle a Dios porque le salve la vida. (DHH)
• Etenim seipsum non redimet homo; non dabit Deo propitiationem suam. (NV)

Secondary Literature

Barthélemy, Dominique. 2005. Critique Textuelle de l’Ancien Testament. vol. 4: Psaumes. Fribourg, Switzerland: Academic Press.

Briggs, Charles Augustus and Emilie Grace Briggs. 1906. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Psalms. vol. 2. ICC. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.

Clifford, Richard. 2002. Psalm 1-72. Abingdon Old Testament commentaries Nashville, TN: Abington Press.

Craigie, Peter C., and Marvin E. Tate. 1983. 2nd ed. Psalms 1–50. vol. 19. WBC. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

Dahood, Mitchell. 1966. Psalms. Vol. 1. Anchor Bible Commentary. New York: Doubleday.

DeClaissé-Walford, Nancy, Rolf A. Jacobson, and Beth LaNeel Tanner. 2014. The Book of Psalms. NICOT. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.

Delitzsch, Franz. 1883. Biblical Commentary on the Psalms. vol. 1. Translated by Eaton David. New York, NY: Funk and Wagnalls.

Ewald, Heinrich. 1866. Die Dichter des Alten Bundes. Göttingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

Fohrer, G. 1993. Psalmen. Berlin: De Gruyter.

Goldingay, John. 2007. Psalms 42–89. vol. 2. BCOT. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.

Goulder, Michael D. 1982. The Psalms of the Sons of Korah. Sheffield: JSOT Press.

Gross, H. 1972. “Self-oder Fremderlösung.” Pages 65–70 in Wort, Lied und Gottesspruch: Beiträge zu Psalmen und Propheten.ed. J. Schreiner. (J. Ziegler FS). Würzburg: Echter.

Hengstenberg, Ernst Wilhelm. 1863. Commentary on the Psalms. vol. 2. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.

Holst, Søren 2019. "Redeeming and Redemption in Biblical and Qumran Psalms and Prayers." Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 33: 203-222.

Jones, Ethan. 2020. "Middle and Passive Voice: Semantic Distinctions of the Niphal in Biblical Hebrew." Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 132: 427-448.

Hitzig, Ferdinand. 1863-1865. Die Psalmen, 2 vols. Leipzig: C.F. Winter.

Kissane, Edward. 1953. The Book of Psalms. vol. 1, Westminster, MD: The Newman Press.

Koehler, Ludwig, Walter Baumgartner, and Johann J. Stamm. 2001. The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. 2 vols. Translated and edited under the supervision of Mervyn E. J. Richardson. Leiden: Brill.

Kraus, Hans-Joachim. 1972. Psalmen 1–63. BKT XV/1. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag.

Milgrom, Jacob. 2001. Leviticus 23-27: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. New York, NY: Doubleday.

Sundermeier, Th. 1993. “Erlösung oder Versöhnung: Religionsgeschichtliche Anstöße.” EvT 53: 124-146.

Taylor, Richard A. trans., 2020. The Syriac Peshitta Bible with English Translation: Psalms. ed. by George A. Kiraz and Joseph Bali. The Antioch Bible/ṢṢurath Kthobh. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias.

VanGemeren, Willem A. 1997. New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. 5 vols. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

Van Wolde, Ellen. 2019. "The Niphal as Middle Voice and Its Consequence for Meaning." Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 43: 453-478.

Weiser, Artur. 1962. The Psalms. OTL. Trans. by Herbert Hartwell. Philadelphia, PA: Westminster Press.

References

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