The River and Its Streams in Psalm 46

Introduction

Psalm 46:5 speaks of a river whose streams run to the city of God and "gladden" it (the terms for the river and streams are bolded):

נָהָר פְּלָגָיו יְשַׂמְּחוּ עִיר־אֱלֹהִים קְדֹשׁ מִשְׁכְּנֵי עֶלְיוֹן

The river has been interpreted in a number of ways.

• A real river or water course. Some scholars understand the river in Psalm 46 as the Jordan river in the vicinity of Dan, or Hezekiah’s tunnel which directed the waters of the Gihon spring into Jerusalem.

• The river with four streams from Genesis 2. Others link it to the river in Genesis 2 or view it as generally reflecting ancient Near Eastern (ANE) descriptions of paradisiacal conditions.

• Water associated with the Temple in Jerusalem. Some scholars connect the river with the bronze sea in the Solomonic Temple.

• God’s royal provision of water to his city. Finally, the river and its streams can be read as God's supply of water to the city akin to the irrigation projects of ANE monarchs.

So, what sort of river does the psalm envisage and why does it matter?

Argument Maps

Option 1: A Specific River or Water Course

A number of scholars have tried to locate the river in Psalm 46 within the topography of Syro-Palestine. According to M. Goulder, for example, this river is the river Jordan and the unnamed city of God is Dan. Thus, for him, the waters from vv. 2-4 "become a fruitful river, whose sources, outside (and within) Dan and away at Baneas, form a confluence beneath the city. They provide the moisture which crowns the area with lofty trees, and which waters the meadows nearby, so making glad the environs the whole year round." Others connect it to Hezekiah’s tunnel which channelled the waters of the Gihon spring into Jerusalem (2 Kgs 20:20; 2 Chr 32:2–4, 30; Sir 48:17-18; cf. Isa 22:9-11), and some compare its significance to the value of the river Euphrates to Babylon.

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[The River As a Real River]: The River in Ps 46:5 refers to a real river specific to the region. #dispreferred
 - <Poetic Liberty>: "The point is not necessarily to describe the land exactly as it was but to offer a poetic depiction of a delightful setting, dwelling in security within the city of God. Indeed, gently flowing streams is a common trope in the ancient Near East, much as chaotic waters were" (O'Kelley 2024, 374 :A:).
 - <Poetic Embellishments in Psalm 46>: Compared to other Korahite psalms, Psalm 46 is less detailed in its description of God's city. It also contains a number of nouns in plural, functioning as intensifying, embellishing forms (e.g., "troubles"=great trouble, "seas"=deepest sea; "devastations"=great devastation). This suggests that the psalm prioritizes artistry and ideology over realism.  
 + <Jordan in Dan>: Jordan is a major river, whose sources supply water to Dan and its surrounding areas. "They provide the moisture which crowns the area with lofty trees, and which waters the meadows nearby, so making glad the environs the whole year round. It is not necessary to stress how much more natural these expressions are for Dan than for Jerusalem" (Goulder 1982, 142 :M:). #dispreferred
  + [The Jordan Valley and Its Sources]: "The great valley of Palestine, as it runs out from between the Lebanons, makes a slight turn eastward round the foot of Hermon, so that Hermon not only looks right down the rest of its course, but is able to discharge into this three-fourths of the waters which gather on his high and ample bulk. By these and the streams which break from the rest of the surrounding hills, the floor of the valley is soaked in moisture.... Four streams, which unite before entering the lake, contest the honour of being considered as the source of the Jordan" (Smith 1920, 471-472, 473 :M:). #dispreferred
  + [The Jordan Valley in HB]: "And Lot lifted up his eyes and saw that the Jordan Valley was well watered everywhere like the garden of the LORD, like the land of Egypt, in the direction of Zoar" (Gen 13:10, ESV). #dispreferred
   <_<The Nature of HB Prose, Poetry, and Prophecy>: HB writers (poets and prophets) were not concerned with accuracy and realism while speaking symbolically of the lay of the land (cf. Mic 4:1–2; Isa 40:3–5; Zech 14:8, 10) (O’Kelly 2024, 374, 379-380, \[citing LeFebvre 2018, 38–39\] :A:; cf. Jacobson 2020, 317 :A:). 
 + <The Gihon Spring and Hezekiah's Tunnel>: The river may refer to Hezekiah’s tunnel which channeled the waters of the Gihon spring into Jerusalem (Briggs and Briggs 1906, 395 :C:; Kirkpatrick 1951, 256 :C:; Neve 1974/75, 244 :A:; etc). #dispreferred
  + <Psalm 46 and Isaiah I>: Given the psalm's affinity with Isaiah I, the crisis envisaged in Psalm 46 could be Sennacherib’s siege of Jerusalem in 701 BCE. In preparation for it, Hezekiah undertook the building of a tunnel (Briggs and Briggs 1906, 395 :C:; Kirkpatrick 1951, 256 :C:; Neve 1974/75, 244 :A:; O’Kelly 2024, 374-380 :A:). #dispreferred
   + [Links between Psalm 46 and Isaiah I]: E.g., 1.) nations as chaotic forces (Ps 46:3–4; Isa 17:12–14); 2.) the mention of the river (Ps 46:5; Isa 8:6); 3.) the Most High and his residence (Ps 46:5; Isa 8:18; Isa 2:2–3); 4.) the inviolability of God's dwelling/city (Ps 46:6; Isa 10:27–34; 17:12–14; 29:8; 31:4–5); 5.) God as refuge (Ps 46:2; Isa 14:32; 28:14–17); 6.) the Holy War motif (Isa 17:12–14; cf. Ps 46:4, 7; Isa 29:5-6; cf. Ps 46:2-4, 8, 12); 7.) trust in God (Isa 30:15; cf. Ps 46:11); 8.) the Immanuel tradition (Isa 7:14; 8:8, 10; Ps 46:8, 12) (Neve 1974/75, 243–246 :A:). #dispreferred  
   + [Epigraphic Evidence]: Cf. the Siloam Tunnel Inscription. #dispreferred
  + <The Gihon Spring in HB>: The Gihon spring is the source for the water that flowed through the Siloam Tunnel (2 Kgs 20:20; 2 Chr 32:2-4, 30; Sir 48:17-18). #dispreferred
   + [Epigraphic Evidence]: Cf. the Siloam Tunnel Inscription.
  + <The Flow of Waters in Psalm 46>: In Psalm 46, the streams are said "to gladden the city of God", hence their flow seems to be directed towards the city (Neve 1974-75, 244 🄰).#dispreferred
   <_<The Nature of HB Prose, Poetry, and Prophecy>: HB writers (poets and prophets) were not concerned with accuracy and realism while speaking symbolically of the lay of the land (cf. Mic 4:1–2; Isa 40:3–5; Zech 14:8, 10) (O’Kelly 2024, 374, 379-380 \[citing LeFebvre 2018, 38–39\] :A:; Jacobson 2010, 317 :A:). 
  - <Not Enough Water in or around Jerusalem>: No "river gladdens' the sanctuary of Jerusalem. The Kidron torrent flows for only a few weeks while fed by winter rains, and the spring of Gihon is barely sufficient to fill the pool of Siloam either by an open canal along the hillside or through Hezekiah's tunnel (2 Kgs 20:20)" (Terrien 2004, n.p.n. :C:).

Option 2: The River from Genesis 2

Many scholars understand the river in Ps 46:5 as an allusion to the river in Gen 2:10 or, generally, as a reflection of ANE descriptions of paradisiacal conditions. "What is intended is the river of grace, which is also likened to a river of paradise in Psa 36:9. When the city of God is threatened and encompassed by foes, still she shall not hunger and thirst, nor fear and despair; for the river of grace and of her ordinances and promises flows with its rippling waves through the holy place, where the dwelling-place or tabernacle of the Most High is pitched."

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[The River As a Cipher For Paradisiacal Conditions]: The River in Ps 46:5 refers to one of the rivers in Genesis 2 or, generally, reflects ANE descriptions of paradisiacal conditions. #dispreferred
 + <River in Genesis 2>: Like Psalm 46, Genesis 2 mentions a river with streams (vv. 10-14). #dispreferred
  + [Genesis 2]: "A river watering the garden flowed from Eden; from there it was separated into four headwaters"/ונהר יצא מעדן להשקות את־הגן ומשם יפרד והיה לארבעה ראשים (v. 10). #dispreferred
  <_ <Terminology and The River's Function>: Psalm 46 and Genesis 2 partially overlap in the terminology for their rivers and streams (both texts use the same word for "river", but the terms for "streams" are different). Additionally, the two traditions differ in terms of what their rivers do. In Genesis 2, the river waters a garden; in Psalm 46, it provides waters to a city. (Goldingay 2007, 69 :C:).
   <_<Canonical Connection between the Texts>: But verse 5 in Psalm 46 can indicate "that God’s story could make its way from the garden where it began to the city where it will end" (Goldingay 2007, 69 :C:). #dispreferred
  <_ <Direction of the River's Flow>: The direction of paradisiacal waters' flow does not fit the description of the river in Psalm 46. 
   + <The Flow of Waters in Psalm 46>: In Psalm 46, the streams are said "to gladden the city of God", hence their flow seems to be directed towards the city of Jerusalem. In Genesis 2, the river goes out from Eden; and from "there it is separated into four headwaters" (cf. Ezek 47:1-12; Joel 4:18; and Zech 14:8, wherein river(s) flow forth from Jerusalem, making the land fertile; Neve 1974-75, 244 :A:).
    <_<The Nature of HB Prose, Poetry, and Prophecy>: HB writers (poets and prophets) were not concerned with accuracy and realism while speaking symbolically of the lay of the land (cf. Mic 4:1–2; Isa 40:3–5; Zech 14:8, 10)(O’Kelly 2024, 374, 379-380, citing LeFebvre 2018, 38–39; :A:). #dispreferred
    - <The River's Flow in Psalm 46>: The psalm is unclear about the direction of the river's flow (O’Kelly 2024, 376 :A:). #dispreferred
 + <Edenic Waters and Divine Residence in HB and ANE>: Psalm 46 links the city of God (with its river) to the dwelling-place or tabernacle of the Most High. In ANE and HB, Edenic waters can be associated with dwellings of gods. #dispreferred 
  + <The Two Rivers in Ugaritic Mythology>: In Ugaritic myths, the god El lived in a well-watered and fertile paradise. More specifically, his residence is said to be "at the sources of the Two Rivers, In the midst of the pools of the Double Deep." These water images are borrowed "from old Mesopotamian poetry descriptive of paradise, the source of life-giving waters." El’s residence is echoed in Gen 2:10–14 (cf. Ezek 47:1–12) (Clifford 197, :M:). #dispreferred 
   + [CTA (= KTU 1.2.III)]: "Then they (the messengers of the gods) set their face. Toward El at the sources of the Two Rivers, In the midst of the pools of the Double Deep. They entered the tent of EI and went into The tent shrine of the King, the Father of Years" (Day 1985, 8 :M:; Clifford 1972, 48–57 :M:. See further "Baal and Anat" III AB C.4; ANET 129–135, 138–142; also 51.4.21–22; "2 Aqhat" 6:47–48; 49.1.5–6; CTA 3.5.14; 4.4.21; 6.1.33; 17.6.47). #dispreferred 
  + <Cultic Iconography>: Visual representations of ancient temples feature varied water symbolism. #dispreferred
   + [Assyrian Temples]: In the Assyrian water system from the 7th c. BCE, "the water in the temple area is divided, as in Ps 46:4, into several channels" (Keel 1997, 140 :M:).#dispreferred
   + [Temple in Mari]: A painting from a temple in Mari depicts cultic space with many symbols which are also found in HB. Among other things, the painting features two fountain deities. "A stream with four branches (cf. Gen 2:10) rises from the vessels held by the deities. A stylized plant grows out of the stream. This is the place from which all life issues" (Keel 1997, 142-143 :M:). #dispreferred
  + [Psalm 36]: "They feast on the abundance of your house; you give them drink from your river of delights (the term 'delight' occurs in 2 Sam 1:24; Jer 51:34; Ps 36:9; it is homophonous with "Eden" in Gen 2:15; DCH 🄳). For with you is the fountain of life; in your light we see light" (vv. 8-9). #dispreferred 

Option 3: The Bronze Sea in the Temple

Furthermore, since in the psalms the word נהר can represent "sea", in Psalm 46 this word can stand for the "bronze sea," a round basin located between the altar and the porch in the court of the Solomonic Temple (1 Kgs 7:23-26; 2 Chr 4:2-5, 10). Thus, comparing the water imagery in Psalm 46 with Isa 8:6-7, O. Keel notes that both traditions juxtapose raging waters with those that flow gently, and the latter are specifically linked to the waters of Shiloah, "the conduit (or one of the conduits?) of Gihon" in Isa 8:6-7. He further observes that although Ps 46:5 does not explicitly refer to the Temple, "it is possible that in this instance 'city of God' denotes only the temple area (cf. 2 Kgs 10:25 RSVm) and not Jerusalem as a whole ..."

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[The River as the Bronze Sea in the Temple]: The River in Ps 46:5 represents the bronze sea in the Solomonic Temple in Jerusalem. The "sea" was a large round basin with water which stood between the altar and the porch in the Temple's court yard. #dispreferred
 + <The City of God in Psalm 46>: The city of God (with its river) in Psalm 46 is closely connected to the dwelling-place or tabernacle of the Most High. #dispreferred
  + <Water and Sacred Places in ANE>: "The reference (in Ps 46:5)... is a poetic image of sacred places in the ancient Near East. Images of sacred places of divine presence often pictured rivers running through them, and Zion is the dwelling of YHWH. The streams of water flow from the divine presence and bring nourishment and hope to the community" (Brueggemann and Bellinger 2014, 245 :C:; cf. Ross 95-96, :C:). #dispreferred
   + [Psalm 36]: "They feast on the abundance of your house; you give them drink from your river of delights (The term "delight" occurs in 2 Sam 1:24; Jer 51:34; Ps 36:9; it is homophonous with "Eden" in Gen 2:15; DCH :D:). For with you is the fountain of life; in your light we see light" (vv. 8-9). #dispreferred
   + [Ezekiel 47 and Joel 4]: Ezek 47:1-12 and Joel 4:18 speak of life-giving waters flowing from God's temple and making fertile the land as far away as the Dead Sea (cf. Zech 14:8). #dispreferred 
    <_<The Direction of the Flow>: In Psalm 46, the city of God is the recipient of the river's gladdening waters. Hence, the direction of the river's flow seems to be towards the city, not away from it.  
   + <Cultic Iconography>: Visual representations of ancient temples feature varied water symbolism. #dispreferred
    + [Assyrian Temples]: In the Assyrian water system from the 7th c. BCE, "the water in the temple area is divided, as in Ps 46:4, into several channels" (Keel 1997, 140 :M:). #dispreferred
    + [Temple in Mari]: A painting from a temple in Mari depicts cultic space with many symbols which are also found in HB. Among other things, the painting features two fountain deities. "A stream with four branches (cf. Gen 2:10) rises from the vessels held by the deities. A stylized plant grows out of the stream. This is the place from which all life issues" (Keel 1997, 142-143 :M:). #dispreferred
 + <Divine Names in Psalm 46>: The divine names in Psalm 46 "reinforce the links with the Jerusalem temple tradition" (Watson 2005, 124–125 :M:). #dispreferred
  + [E.g., Isa 2:3]: "Many peoples will come and say, 'Come, let us go up to the mountain of the Lord, to the temple of the God of Jacob. He will teach us his ways, so that we may walk in his paths.' The law will go out from Zion, the word of the Lord from Jerusalem" (v. 3). #dispreferred
 + <The River's Streams and Solomon's Temple Lavers>: In Psalm 46, the "waters divided (''plg'' I means “to divide’) from the sea (ym, nhr) would then have found concrete form in the lavers, which were of very imposing size. According to 1 Kgs 7:27—29, there were ten lavers in the temple at Jerusalem" (Keel 1997, 140 :M:). #dispreferred
 - <Terminology for the Bronze Sea>: The terminology used for the bronze sea in 1 Kgs 7:23-26; 2 Chr 4:2-5, 10 does not match the description of the river and its streams in Psalm 46.
   + [1 Kings 7]: 1 Kings 7 speaks of הים מוצק (vv. 23-26; 2 Chr 4:2-5, 10; cf.ים הנחשת אשר בבית־יהוה in Jer 52:17) and Ps 46:5 has נהר פלגיו. 
   + [The River's Streams/פלגים]: Cf. SDBH's definition of "streams" used in Psalm 46: a "relatively large quantity of liquid flowing with strength, stream" (SDBH :D:); "a body of flowing water, ◄ probably dug by humans--channel, watercourse" (SDBH :D:).
 

Option 4: God's Royal Irrigation of the City (preferred)

Finally, the river with its streams could be understood as representing God’s royal provision of water to his city akin to the activities of ANE monarchs. Given the Psalm's dual focus—the elimination of external threat to the city cast as mighty waters and securing its well-being through life-giving streams—the psalm echoes ANE royal inscriptions with a similar dual focus. Sennacherib’s Bavian Inscription (RINAP 223) is a case in point. In it, the Assyrian ruler documents his civil projects in Assyria and also his conquest of Babylon in 689 BCE. "In both cases, Sennacherib emphasizes his ingenious technical ability to manipulate water for the benefit of the Assyrian state, either through the creative irrigation of the Assyrian heartland and the new capital, or the destructive flooding and leveling of Babylon.... the dichotomy presented by these activities, a dualism of 'nurture and control' through technical expertise, is a persistent theme throughout the rhetoric of Sennacherib’s inscriptions and reliefs."

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[The River As a Cipher For God's Irrigation of His City]: The river in Ps 46:5 represents God’s royal provision of water to his city in the manner of other ANE kings. This ensures a community's sustenance in times of war (siege) and peace.
 + <Royal Domestic Achievements in ANE>: Royal building projects (including irrigation endeavours) are not ideologically neutral. Engaging in civil works is a sign of a monarch's victory over disordering forces. "A king's domestic achievements are a direct consequence, even a celebration, of his military conquests" (Green 2010, 170 :M:). 
  + <Assyria's Royal Ideology>: In Assyria's royal ideology, for example, the creation of a city as a "well-watered place" meant to create an "ideological center", which would stand "in direct contrast to the conditions that prevail in the world outside of Assyria" (Green 2010, 78 :M:). Similar concerns are found in the annals of other ANE monarchs. 
  + [E.g., West-Semitic Inscriptions]: One way in which a king could turn his capital into the ideal space was by ensuring an abundant water supply. Cf. the Tell Siran, 4-5 (COS 2.25; c. 600 BCE); the Siloam Tunnel inscription (KAI 189; c. 700 BCE).
  + [E.g., the Mesha Stele, 9th c. BCE]: As other ANE royals annals, the Mesha Stele speaks of both military campaigns of Mesha, king of Moab, and his building projects, including the provision of water supply in Dibon. The Stele speaks of reservoirs (ll. 9 and 23), channels (l. 25), and cisterns (ll. 24-25) that Mesha constructed. These signify a creation of space "in terms of another important binary opposition between arid and well-watered space" (Green 2010, 181 :M:).
  + [E.g., "Canal of Abundance" of Ashurnasirpal II]: Ashurnasirpal II (c. 883–859 BCE) dug a special canal to irrigate his gardens, viewed as an Assyrian Eden, the paradise at the center of the cosmos. "The canal grew strong (as it flowed) from upstream towards the gardens. Fragrance \[filled (?)\] the walkways. Streams of water (as numerous) as the stars of heaven flowed in the garden of delights" (ll. 36b-39; Green 2010, 76 :M:).
 + <Neo-Assyrian Royal Ideology>: Of interest to Psalm 46 is that Neo-Assyrian royal ideology used binary oppositions such as "negative and positive conditions," "disorder and order." Disorder is cast in terms of dry and infertile land, whereas order is conceptualized as well-watered and fruitful land. Furthermore, in foreign lands, "disorder was a consequence of the Assyrian king’s victory over the enemy. Cities and buildings were reduced to ruins, the ideologically appropriate condition of enemy territory" (Green 2010, 177 :M:).
 + <Royal Domestic Achievements in Neo-Assyrian Inscriptions>: In ANE royal inscriptions, kings chronicle their military successes alongside domestic projects, i.e., architectural and engineering achievements, creation of well-watered cities and villages, ensuring of agricultural, horticultural, and viticultural abundance. Digging irrigation canals to channel water through the land, but more specifically through major cities and capitals, was one of the royal priorities (Green 2010 :M:; Russell 2017, 91-97 :M:).    
  + <E.g., Sennacherib’s Bavian Inscription (RINAP 223)>: Sennacherib’s Bavian Inscription (RINAP 223) records Sennacherib's a.) domestic projects (including extensive irrigation work); b.) military campaigns against many kings, whose fear is described in striking terms; and c.) destruction of Babylon through flooding (Grayson and Novotny 2014, 316-317).
   + [Sennacherib’s Irrigation of the Land]: "At that time, I greatly enlarged the site of Nineveh.... Its fields, which had been turned into wastelands due to lack of water, were woven over with spider webs. Moreover, its people did not know artificial irrigation, but had their eyes turned for rain (and) showers from the sky. I climbed high and I had eighteen canals dug from the cities Masitu, Banbarina, Šapparišu, Kār Šamaš-nāṣir, Kār-nūri, Talmusu, Ḫatâ, Dalāyin, Rēš-ēni, Sulu, Dūr-Ištar, Šibaniba, Isparirra, Gingiliniš, Nampagātu, Tīlu, Alum-ṣusi, (and) the water that is above the city Ḫadabitu and I directed their courses into the Ḫusur River. 11b–13a) I had a canal dug from the border of the city Kisiru to Nineveh (and) I caused those waters to flow inside it" (Grayson and Novotny 2014, 316-317 :M:). 
   + [Sennacherib’s Destruction of Babylon]: "I destroyed, devastated, (and) burned with fire the city, and (its) buildings, from its foundations to its crenellations.... I dug canals into the center of that city and (thus) leveled their site with water. I destroyed the outline of its foundations and (thereby) made its destruction surpass that of the Deluge. So that in the future, the site of that city and (its) temples will be unrecognizable, I dissolved it (Babylon) in water and annihilated (it), (making it) like a meadow" (Grayson and Novotny 2014, 316-317 :M:).
  + [Iconography of Sennacherib's Achievements]: In Sennacherib's palace, variously-themed reliefs visually document his military campaigns and domestic works. His building and irrigation projects were depicted on the north and east walls of Court IV (Russell 1991, 257 :M:).
 + <Royal Civil Works in Ancient Israel>: As in ANE, providing water for urban communities in ancient Israel was important (cf. 2 Kgs 20:20; 2 Chr 32:3–4, 30; ANET, 321).
   + [The Siloam Tunnel inscription]: The inscription speaks of Hezekiah's project that would bring water from the Gihon spring outside Jerusalem into the city (KAI 189; c. 700 BCE). This was undertaken in fear of an impending siege of Jerusalem (cf. Isa 22:9-11). Hezekiah's efforts would have involved "filling the Lower Cistern (birket el-hamra, about 200 meters south of Siloam), digging the Siloam tunnel from the Gihon spring to Siloam, and presumably securing the Upper Cistern as well (cf. Isa 7:3; 36:7)” (Blenkinsopp 2000, 334 :C:; see further Russell 2017, 84–106 :M:). Relatedly, the "streams" in Ps 46:5 could be viewed as "a body of flowing water, ◄ probably dug by humans--channel, watercourse" (SDBH).

Conclusion

Due to the multi-valence of water symbolism in HB and ANE, the views on the significance of the river and its streams in Ps 46:5 are many and not always clear-cut. Although scholars may lean towards a particular reading more strongly, they do not rule out other interpretive possibilities or argue for a combination of two or more readings. Given the arguments presented above, Option 4 (in conjunction with elements from Options 1 and 2) is preferable. This is due to the Psalm's overall focus which shows affinity with ANE royal propagandistic literature (i.e., West and East Semitic royal inscriptions) with a dual agenda of "control and nurture".

Notably, this agenda is often couched in cosmological terms, whereby the subjugation of external forces (foreign kings) is ideologized as conquering the primeval chaos and disorder and the undertaking of domestic projects (e.g., irrigation work) is cast in terms of (re)establishing order and (re)creating paradisiacal conditions. Significantly, such ideology of royal achievements closely aligned the modus operandi of earthly monarchs with that of divine kings. Of special interest for the discussion at hand is that engineered by kings, ancient canal systems not only provided water supply to cities and their surroundings, but also served as part of the cities' defensive structures. As such, they were a source of particular pride to ANE monarchs as seen, for example, from Ashurnasirpal II's account of digging "A Canal of Abundance" or Sennacherib's Bavian Inscription regarding his irrigation feats.

Although Israel's kings had similar concerns and were involved in similar projects (e.g., Hezekiah and the tunnel he built in Jerusalem) Israel's theology demanded they and their subjects look to YHWH for sustenance and protection (cf. Isa 22:8-11). Reflecting this, Psalm 46 speaks of the inviolability of God's city and showcases its own version of the "nurture and control" programme. In it, the city's divine king, YHWH of Hosts, addresses external threat, i.e., nations and kingdoms metaphorized as chaotic waters (vv. 2-4, 7-11), and turns his city, the cultic center par excellence, into a well-watered and well-protected, Eden-like, space (v. 5).

There is a river whose streams make glad the city of God,

the holy place where the Most High dwells.

God is within her, she will not fall;

God will help her at break of day (Ps 46:5-6 [4-5; NIV]).

Research

Secondary Literature

Bagg, Ariel. 2000. “Irrigation in Northern Mesopotamia: Irrigation for the Assyrian Capitals (12th-7th centuries BC).” Irrigation and Drainage Systems 14: 301-324.

Bauer, Johannes B. 1977. "Zions Flüsse: Ps. 45 (46), 5." Pages 59-91 in Johannes B. Bauer & Johannes Marbock (eds.), Memoria Jerusalem. Freundesgabe Franz Sauer zum 70. Geburtstag. Graz: Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt.

Briggs, Charles Augustus and Emilie Grace Briggs. 1906. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Psalms. vol. 2. ICC. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.

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