The Meaning of צלמות in Ps 23:4

Back to Psalm 23.

Exegetical issues for Psalm 23:

• The Text and Meaning of Ps. 23:3b
• The Meaning of צלמות in Ps 23:4
• The Text of Ps. 23:6b

Introduction

The Hebrew text of Psalm 23:4a reads as follows:

גַּ֤ם כִּֽי־אֵלֵ֨ךְ בְּגֵ֪יא צַלְמָ֡וֶת

The morphology and meaning of צַלְמָוֶת is disputed. The word is, as one scholar writes, a "puzzling term." For years, scholars have been debating the meaning of צַלְמָוֶת. Consider, for example, the following options of interpretation of צַלְמָוֶת:

Option 1: Interpret צַלְמָוֶת as a compound noun of צֵל (shadow) and מָוֶת (death), translated as "shadow of death" (cf. ESV, KJB, NASB).

Option 2: Interpret צַלְמָוֶת as a noun for "darkness" derived from the root צלם (”to be dark”). Within this option, some scholars suggest the MT צַלְמָוֶת should be revocalized to צַלְמוּת ("darkness") with an וּת suffix (typically used with abstract nouns). At least one scholar suggests the MT צַלְמָוֶת should be revocalized to צַלְמוֹת ("darkness") with an וֹת suffix (also used with abstract nouns). Still others suggest retaining the MT vocalization.

Option 3: Interpret צַלְמָוֶת as a compound noun in which the ending מָוֶת does not refer literally to "death;" instead, it serves the function of a superlative. This interpretation is represented by the following modern translations: "a valley dark as death" (NEB); "a valley of deepest darkness" (JPS, 1985); "the darkest valley" (NIV); etc.

Argument Maps

Shadow of death

Some interpreters understand צַלְמָוֶת as a compound noun of צֵל (shadow) and מָוֶת (death), translated as "shadow of death" (cf. ESV, KJB, NASB). This option is supported by the ancient versions (LXX, Peshitta, Targum, and Jerome Heb.).

===
model:
    removeTagsFromText: true
    shortcodes:
      ":C:": {unicode: "🄲"}
      ":G:": {unicode: "🄶"}
      ":A:": {unicode: "🄰"}
      ":I:": {unicode: "🄸"}    
      ":L:": {unicode: "🄻"}
      ":D:": {unicode: "🄳"}    
      ":M:": {unicode: "🄼"}   
selection:
    excludeDisconnected: false
dot:
    graphVizSettings:
        rankdir: LR
        concentrate: true
        ranksep: 0.2
        nodesep: 0.2
=== 
[Shadow of death]: The word צַלְמָוֶת is a compound noun of צֵל (shadow) and מָוֶת (death); hence, the translation "shadow of death" (cf. ESV, KJB, NASB).#dispreferred
 + <צל + מָוֶת>: The form צַלְמָוֶת, according to the Masoretic vocalization, appears to be the combination of two words: צֵל (shadow) and מָוֶת (death).#dispreferred
  <_ <Different meaning>: A compound noun acquires a different meaning than the individual words that are used to form it (e.g.: "honeymoon" \[cpd. from "honey" plus "moon"\]). Hence, the word צַלְמָוֶת "itself does not necessarily mean \[shadow of]\ death" (Bratcher and Reyburn 1991, 233. So, Futato 2009, 101).
  - <The vowel in צֵל>: It is unlikely that צַלְמָ֡וֶת is a compound noun for we would expect the regular construct form צֵל (with the vowel tsere) instead of צַל (with patach).
   + [Examples]: Judg 9:36 צֵ֧ל הֶהָרִ֛ים ("shadow of the mountains"); Gen 19:8 בְּצֵ֥ל קֹרָתִֽי ("in the shadow of my roof"); Ps 91:1 בְּצֵ֥ל שַׁ֝דַּ֗י ("in the shadow/shelter of the Most High"); etc.
   <_ <Similar case>: The change in vocalization of צֵל (with tsere) to צַל (with patach) is similar to the construct form קַן (with patach) of the substantive קֵן (with tsere) "nest" (Cohen 1996, 302 :A:).#dispreferred
    + [Deut 22:6]: קַן־צִפֹּ֣ור ("a nest of bird" >> "a bird's nest").#dispreferred
 + <Ancient versions>: The ancient versions seem to be interpreting צַלְמָוֶת as "shadow of death".#dispreferred
  + [Ancient versions]:LXX: σκιᾶς θανάτου - "death's shadow" (NETS); Targum: טולא דמותא "shadow of death" (Stec 2004, 61); Peshitta: ܛ̈ܠܠܝ ܡܘܬܐ "shadows of death" (Taylor 2021, 81).#dispreferred
   <_ <Folk etymology>: The interpretation of the ancient versions probably resulted from a popular folk etymology that understood "צַלְמָוֶת ('darkness, impenetrable gloom') as two words: צַלְ ('shadow') and מָוֶת ('death')" (Glenny 2009, 143 :M:).
 - <צל and מות>: In biblical Hebrew צל never "occurs in construct with מות or any other term having to do with death or the Netherworld" (Cohen 1996, 304 footnote 56 :A:. See also Job 38:17 in which מות occurs in construct with שַׁעֲרֵי, but it does not occur in construct with צל: "Have the gates of death \[שַׁעֲרֵי־מָ֑וֶת\] been revealed to you, or have you seen the gates of deep darkness \[שַׁעֲרֵ֖י צַלְמָ֣וֶת\]?" \[ESV\]).
 - <Compound nouns>: Compound nouns are rarely used as common nouns in Biblical Hebrew. They tend to be used as proper nouns (person or place names), e.g. גַּבְרִיאֵל = man of God (JM §87c :G:. So, Van Acker 2017, 100 :A:).
  <_ <Epithet>:צַלְמָוֶת is a compound place name composed of צל (meaning "shadow, shelter, cover, or protection") and מות (being the personification of death, the well-known Ugaritic deity Mot). Hence, צַלְמָוֶת "Shadow of Death/Mot" or "Shelter/Protection of Mot" would be understood as an epithet of the underworld (cf. Van Acker 2017, 106 :A: and Michel 1984, 12-13 :A:).#dispreferred
   - <Contextually doubtful>: The broader context of the psalm precludes the possibility that the psalmist is in the realm of the dead (i.e., the underworld). For instance, YHWH restores  the psalmist's life (v. 3), and the psalmist looks forward to being in  YHWH's house (v. 6).
 - <Construct chain>: "The standard way Hebrew says 'X of Y' is to string the nouns together in a chain but to keep them as separate words" (Briggs 2021, 126 :C:). Hence, we would expect "shadow" and "death" to be two separate words such as in Ps 17:8 בְּצֵ֥ל כְּ֝נָפֶ֗יךָ ("in the shadow of your wings").
 - <Usage>: "The translation 'shadow of death' is unnecessary and untenable in some verses where צַלְמָוֶת is found..." (Van Acker 2017, 100 :A:. So, Cohen 1996, 303 :A:).
  + [Amos 5:8]: For instance, "shadow of death" does not work in Amos 5:8: \[YHWH is the one who\] " . . . turns deep darkness (צַלְמָ֔וֶת) into the morning and darkens (הֶחְשִׁ֑יךְ) the day into night . . ." (ESV. Cf. also Job 16:16; 24:16-17; etc.).
 - <Shadow>: In biblical Hebrew, the occurrences of צל "shadow, protection" may be divided into four basic usages: (1) in connection with the time of day (e.g., Isa 38:8), in reference to (2) shade provided by natural objects like trees (e.g., Jonah 4:6), (3) protection (e.g., Ps 17:8), (4) and brevity of the human life (e.g., Ps 144:4) (Cohen 1996, 304 footnote 56 :A:). None of these usages "is semantically appropriate for any of the occurrences of צלמות" (Cohen 1996, 304 :A:. So, Mazzini: "Shadow was a special metaphor connected with the 'welfare.' Therefore it would be unsuitable to maintain that the term for shadow, \[צֵל\], might have been used within such an expression as 'shadow of death'" \[Mazzini 1999, 80 :A:; cf. also Van Acker 2017, 100 :A:\]).
  + [Examples of basic usages of צל]: (1) Isa 38:8: "Behold, I will make the shadow (צֵ֣ל) cast by the declining sun . . ." (ESV; cf. also 2 kgs 20:9, 10; Jer 6:4; etc.). (2) Jonah 4:6: "Now the Lord God appointed a plant and made it come up over Jonah, that it might be a shade (בַּצֵּ֔ל) over his head" (ESV; cf. also Jonah 4:5; Hos 4:13; Judg 9:36; etc.). (3) Ps 17:8: " Keep me as the apple of your eye; hide me in the shadow of your wings (בְּצֵ֥ל כְּ֝נָפֶ֗יךָ)" (ESV; cf. also Pss 63:8; 91:1; Jer 48:45; etc.). (4) Ps 144:4: "Man is like a breath; his days are like a passing shadow (כְּצֵ֣ל עֹובֵֽר)" (ESV; cf. also Eccl 6:12; 1 Chr 29:15; etc.).

Darkness (preferred)

The majority of interpreters understand צַלְמָוֶת as a noun for "darkness" derived from the root צלם (”to be dark”). Interpreters who hold this view suggest that צַלְמָוֶת should be revocalized to צַלְמוּת ("darkness") or צַלְמוֹת ("darkness"), while others prefer the MT vocalization.

===
model:
    removeTagsFromText: true
    shortcodes:
      ":C:": {unicode: "🄲"}
      ":G:": {unicode: "🄶"}
      ":A:": {unicode: "🄰"}
      ":I:": {unicode: "🄸"}    
      ":L:": {unicode: "🄻"}
      ":D:": {unicode: "🄳"}    
      ":M:": {unicode: "🄼"}   
selection:
    excludeDisconnected: false
dot:
    graphVizSettings:
        rankdir: LR
        concentrate: true
        ranksep: 0.2
        nodesep: 0.2
=== 
[Darkness]: The word צלמות should be read as a noun for "darkness" derived from the root צלם (”to be dark”).
 + <The root צלם>: "The root ṣlm-II ("to be dark") is a well-known, widespread stem in the family of Semitic languages" (Van Acker 2017, 99 :A:). 
  + [The root צלם]: Akkadian (ṣalāmu), Arabic ظَلَمَ (ẓalama), Ethiopic (ṣalma).
  <_ <Unknown>: The root צלם (ṣlm-II - "to be dark") is unknown in Hebrew.#dispreferred
   <_ <Loanword>: "If צַלְמָוֶת is a loanword, then the absence of the root ṣlm-II from BH is understandable" (Ayil 2).
 + <Context>: Understanding צלמות as an as an abstract noun meaning "darkness" makes sense in the context of Ps 23:4. This verse "pictures the shepherd taking his sheep through a dark ravine where predators might lurk. The life-threatening situations faced by the psalmist are the underlying reality behind the imagery" (NET).
 + <Associations>: The word צַלְמָוֶת "is frequently associated with darkness/night and contrasted with light/morning. In some cases the darkness described is associated with the realm of death (Job 10:21-22; 38:17), but this is a metaphorical application of the word and does not reflect its inherent meaning" (NET, cf. also Van Acker 2017, 100 :A:; Stone 2006, 52-57 :A:).
  + [Job 34:22]: "There is no darkness (חֹ֖שֶׁךְ), and no deep darkness (צַלְמָ֑וֶת), where evildoers can hide themselves" (NET. So ESV, NIV, etc. See also Job 3:5; 10:21-22; 12:22; 24:17; 28:3; 34:22; Ps 107:10, 14; Isa 9:1; Jer 13:16; Amos 5:8).
 + <Egyptian parallel>: The expression גֵיא צַלְמָוֶת “valley of darkness” is “equivalent to the Egyptian expression ı͗nt kkt ‘valley of darkness,’ occurring most notably in the Book of the Dead, spell 130, as a place to which the deceased will not go on account of his righteousness (parallel to ‘lake of criminals’ and other expressions)” (Rendsburg 2001, 189 :A:).”
  + [Spell 130]: “I will not be turned back because of Re, I will not be driven off by whoever acts with his hands, I will not go into the Valley of Darkness, I will not enter into the Lake of Criminals, I will not be in the weakening of striking-power” (Faulkner 1990, 119 :C:).
 - <וֶת suffix>: If the root is צלם, then וֶת has to be interpreted as a suffix, but there is no וֶת suffix in Biblical Hebrew.#dispreferred 
  <_ <Revocalize to וֹת>: The consonants should be vocalized as צַלְמוֹת ("darkness"), וֹת being a suffix for abstract nouns (cf. Barth 1889, 411 :M:).
   + <The suffix וֹת>: The abstract suffix וֹת also occurs with the Biblical Hebrew term for darkness אֲפֵלוֹת (Isa 59:9) (Cohen 1996, 305 :A:).
    + [Isa 59:9]: בָּאֲפֵלֹ֥ות נְהַלֵּֽךְ ("We walk in gloom" \[ESV\]).
   + <צַלְמוֹת>: The form צַלְמוֹת was transformed into MT צַלְמָוֶת under the midrashic influence of the 'popular etymology צל (שׁל) מות 'shadow of death', since מוֹת (the construct form of מָוֶת) could certainly be understood midrashically as standing for מות 'death'" (Cohen 1996, 307 :A:).
  <_ <Revocalize to וּת>: The consonants should be vocalized as צַלְמוּת ("darkness"), וּת being a suffix for abstract nouns (cf. Schökel 1992, 390 :C:; Kirkpatrick 1901, 126 :C:; Briggs and Briggs 1906, 211–212 :C:; GKC §30r, footnote 1 :G:).
   + <The suffix וּת>: "The substantive צַלְמוּת follows the same pattern as קַדְרוּת 'darkness' (Isa 50:3), מַלְכוּת 'kingship' (for example, Ps 145:13), and הוֹלֵלוּת 'madness' (Qoh 10:13), namely with the suffix וּת for abstract nouns" (Cohen 1996, 305 :A:).
  <_ <Loan word>: צַלְמָוֶת ("darkness") is a loanword from the root ​ṣlm-II. The word originally had the suffix ūt which shifted to ​awt. This phenomenon is similar to חֲצַרְמָוֶת in Gen 10:26, which "does not mean 'courtyard of death' as popular etymology would have it, but comes from the Old South Arabian toponym ḥḍrmwt, a variant of ḥḍrmt, where the suffix ūt shifted to awt" (Ayil 2 :A:).

Dark as death >> Deep darkness

The majority of modern translations appear to be interpreting the ending מָוֶת as a superlative. This interpretation is represented by the following modern translations: "a valley dark as death" (NEB); "a valley of deepest darkness" (JPS, 1985); "the darkest valley" (NIV); etc.

===
model:
    removeTagsFromText: true
    shortcodes:
      ":C:": {unicode: "🄲"}
      ":G:": {unicode: "🄶"}
      ":A:": {unicode: "🄰"}
      ":I:": {unicode: "🄸"}    
      ":L:": {unicode: "🄻"}
      ":D:": {unicode: "🄳"}    
      ":M:": {unicode: "🄼"}   
selection:
    excludeDisconnected: false
dot:
    graphVizSettings:
        rankdir: LR
        concentrate: true
        ranksep: 0.2
        nodesep: 0.2
=== 
[Deep darkness]: The MT צַלְמָוֶת should be interpreted as deep darkness. The ending מָוֶת does not refer literally to "death;" instead, it is a superlative. Hence, "shadow of death" means "very deep shadow, thick darkness" >> "deep darkness".#dispreferred
 + <Superlative>: In Biblical Hebrew מָוֶת and מוּת can function as superlative (cf. Thomas 1962, 197 :A:).#dispreferred
  + [Judge 16:16]: ". . . his soul was vexed to death \[לָמֽוּת\]" (ESV).#dispreferred
  + [Isaiah 53:12]: ". . . he poured out his soul to death \[לַמָּ֨וֶת֙\]" (ESV).#dispreferred
  + [Jonah 4:9]: ". . . angry enough to die \[עַד־מָֽוֶת\]" (ESV).#dispreferred
 + <Context>: "A superlative image for 'very deep shadow' or 'deep darkness' is consistent with the shepherd metaphor because the shepherd leads the flock through ravines and wadis where the steep and narrow slopes keep out the light" (VanGemeren 2008, 254 :C:).#dispreferred
  <_<Darkness>: This sense also works with צַלְמָוֶת meaning "darkness."
 - <מות>: "Even if מות could be used as an indication of the superlative, the term צַלְמָוֶת could only mean 'thick darkness' if צל 'shadow' could be shown also to mean 'darkness'" (Cohen 1996, 304 :A:).

Conclusion (B)

Although צַלְמָוֶת has traditionally been understood as a compound noun meaning "shadow of death" (צֵל "shadow" and מָוֶת "death"), it is more likely a noun for "darkness" derived from the root צלם ("to be dark") and originally pronounced צַלְמוּת. The change to צַלְמָוֶת probably occured as the form was reanalyzed as a compound noun by a process of folk etymology. This word tends to be associated with darkness in the Bible and is sometimes parallel to words belonging to the semantic domain of "darkness." This interpretation fits well in the context of Psalm 23. The valley of "darkness" depicts the dangerous places where the psalmist may walk. Yet, the psalmist asserts that he will not fear harm because YHWH is with him.

Research

Translations

Ancient

• LXX: ἐὰν γὰρ καὶ πορευθῶ ἐν μέσῳ σκιᾶς θανάτου ("For even if I walk in the midst of death's shadow").
• Symmachus: διὰ φάραγγος σκεπομένης θανάτῳ
• Peshitta: ܐܦܢ ܐܗܠܟ܂ \ܒܢܚ̈ܠܝ ܛ̈ܠܠܝ /ܒܢܚ̈ܠܐ ܕܛ̈ܠܠܝ#3#/ ܡܘܬܐ ("Even if I walk in the dry valleys of the shadows of death").
• Jerome Gall.: nam et si ambulavero in medio umbrae mortis ("For even if I walk in the midst of the shadow of death").
• Jerome Hebr.: sed et si ambulavero in valle mortis ("But even if I walk in the valley of death").
• Targum: ברם כד אזל בגלותא במישר טולא דמותא ("Even when I go into exile in the valley of the shadow of death").

Modern

"dark as death, deepest darkness, darkest"

• English
  • Even though I walk through the darkest valley (NIV)
  • Even when I must walk through the darkest valley(NET)
  • Even if I go through the deepest darkness (GNT)
  • Even when I walk through the darkest valley (NLT)
  • Even were I to walk through a valley of deepest darkness (REB)
  • Even though I walk through the darkest valley (NRSV)
  • Though I walk through a valley of deepest darkness (JPS, 1985)
  • Even when I walk through a valley of deep darkness (ISV)
  • Even when I go through the darkest valley (HCSB)
  • I may walk through valleys as dark as death (CEV)
  • Even were I to walk in a ravine as dark as death (NJB)
  • Even though I walk through a valley dark as death (NEB)

• German
  • Und ob ich schon wanderte im finstern Tal (Luther 2017)
  • Auch wenn es durch dunkle Täler geht (HFA)
  • Selbst wenn ich durch ein finsteres Tal gehen muss (NGÜ)
  • Auch wenn ich gehe im finsteren Tal (EÜ)
  • Und muss ich auch durchs finstere Tal (GNB)
  • Wandere ich auch im finstern Tal (ZÜR)

• French
  • Si je devais traverser ╵la vallée où règnent ╵d’épaisses ténèbres (BDS)

• Spanish
  • Aun si voy por valles tenebrosos (NVI)
  • Aunque pase por el más oscuro de los valles (DHH)

"shadow of death"

• English
  • Even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death (ESV)
  • Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death (KJB)
  • Even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death (NASB)

• German
  • Auch wenn ich wandere im Tal des Todesschattens (ELB)

• French
  • Même si je marche dans un ravin d'ombre et de mort (TOB)
  • Même si je marche dans la vallée de l'ombre de mort (NBS)
  • Quand je marche dans la vallée de l'ombre de la mort (NVRS)
  • Même si je traverse la sombre vallée de la mort (PDV)
  • Même si je marche dans la vallée de l'ombre et de la mort (NFC)
  • Même quand je marche dans la sombre vallée de la mort (S21)

• Spanish
  • Aunque ande en valle de sombra de muerte (RVR95)
  • Aunque ande en valle de sombra de muerte (BTX4)

Secondary Literature

Ayil, Ephraim S. "A Short Note on צלמות." Available at academia.edu. Pages 1-3.

Barnes, Albert. 1869. Notes: Critical, Explanatory, and Practical on the Book of Psalms. Vol. 1. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers.

Barth, Jakob. 1889. Die Nominalbildung in den Semitischen Sprachen. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs'sche Buchhandlung.

Briggs, Charles Augustus, and Emilie Grace Briggs. 1906. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on The Book of Psalms, Vol. I. New York: C. Scribner’s Sons.

Cohen, Chaim. 1996. "The Meaning of צלמות 'Darkness': A study in Philological Method." In Texts, Temples, and Traditions: A Tribute to Menahem Haran. Edited by Michael V. Fox. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 287-309.

Dahood, Mitchell. 1977. "Ugaritic mšr, 'song,' in Psalms 28,7 and 137,3." Vol. 58. Post. Ist. Biblico; Via della Pillotta 25: 216-217.

Delitzsch, Franz Julius. 1883. A Commentary on the Psalms. New York: Funk and Wagnalls.

Faulkner, Raymond O. 1990. The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Freedman, David Noel. 1980. Pottery, Poetry, and Prophecy: Studies in Early Hebrew Poetry. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.

Futato, Mark D. 2008. "The Book of Psalms." In Cornerstone Biblical Commentary: The Book of Psalms, The Book of Proverbs. Vol 7. Carol Stream: Tyndale House Publishers.

Glenny, W. Edward. 2009. Finding Meaning in the Text: Translation Technique and Theology in the Septuagint of Amos. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.

Goldingay, John. 2006. Psalms: Psalms 1-41. Vol. 1. BCOT. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic.

Grosser, Emmylou. 2023. Unparalleled Poetry: A Cognitive Approach to the Free-Rhythm Verse of the Hebrew Bible. New York: Oxford University Press.

Kirkpatrick, Alexander F. 1906. The Book of Psalms. London: Cambridge University Press.

Joosten, Jan. 2015. “The Tiberian Vocalization and the Hebrew of the Second Temple Period.” Pages 25-36 in Hebrew of the Late Second Temple Period. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.

Mazzini, Giovanni. 1999. "On the Meaning of Salmawet: A Discussed Word in the Old Testament." Studi Epigrafici e Linguistici Sul Vicino Oriente Antico 16: 79-83.

Michel, Walter L. 1984. "SLMWT, 'Deep Darkness' or 'Shadow of Death'?" Biblical Research: 5-20.

Rendsburg, Gary A. 2001. "Hebrew Philological Notes (II)." Hebrew Studies 42: 187–95.

Ross, William A., and Elizabeth Robar. eds. 2023. Linguistic Theory and the Biblical Text. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers.

Schökel, Luis Alonso. 1992. Salmos I (Salmos 1-72): Traducción, Introducciones y Comentario. Navarra: Verbo Divino.

Stone, Anthony P. 2006. “Does 'Shadow of Death' Mean 'Deep Darkness'?” Biblical Research: 53-57.

Thomas, Winton. 1962. "צַלְמָוֶת in The Old Testament." Journal of Semitic Studies, Volume 7, Issue 2: 191–200.

VanGemeren, Willem. 2008. Psalms: The Expositor's Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

Van Acker, David. 2017. "צלמות, An Etymological and Semantic Reconsideration." Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages 43/2: 97-123.

References

23:4 Approved