The Discourse of Ps. 91

Back to Psalm 91

Introduction

Psalm 91 contains several instances of כִּי, three of which have been especially difficult for translators and have received a wide variety of interpretations:

v. 3

כִּ֤י ה֣וּא יַ֭צִּֽילְךָ מִפַּ֥ח יָק֗וּשׁ מִדֶּ֥בֶר הַוּֽוֹת׃,

For (ESV, NLT, LUT2017, ELB, EÜ, NBS, NVSR); Surely (NIV, cf. NET, S21, PDV); 'will say that' (JPS85); omit (CEV, GNT, ZÜR, GNB, HFA, TOB, BDS, NFC, BTX4, DHH)

v. 9

כִּֽי־אַתָּ֣ה יְהוָ֣ה מַחְסִ֑י עֶ֝לְי֗וֹן שַׂ֣מְתָּ מְעוֹנֶֽךָ׃,

For (NET, cf. ELB, LUT2017, NBS); Because... (ESV, JPS85, BTX4, DHH); If... (NIV, NLT); Surely (cf. EÜ, S21, BDS, PDV2017, NFC, TOB); omit (CEV, GNT, ZÜR)

v. 14

כִּ֤י בִ֣י חָ֭שַׁק וַאֲפַלְּטֵ֑הוּ אֲ֝שַׂגְּבֵ֗הוּ כִּֽי־יָדַ֥ע שְׁמִֽי׃.

Because... (JPS85, NIV, ESV, NET, cf. ZÜR, ELB, EÜ, LUT2017, BTX4, TOB, S21, NBS, NVSR, PDV2017); Surely (cf. BDS); omit (NFC)

Argument Maps

The argument maps below discuss each of these instances of כִּי (vv. 3, 9, 14) one-at-a-time.

v. 3

The כִּי in v. 3 has been interpreted in a number of ways.

1. Discourse marker
2. Asseverative particle
3. Complementiser

Discourse marker (preferred)

Some translations interpret the כִּי as a discourse marker. Consider the ESV as an example of this category: I will say to the LORD, “My refuge and my fortress, my God, in whom I trust.” For he will deliver you from the snare of the fowler (ESV; cf. LEB, NASB, NLT, LUT2017, ELB, EÜ, RVR 2015, NBS, NSVR).

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[Discourse Marker]: The כִּי at the beginning of v. 3 is a discourse marker (Hupfield 1862:17 :C:; Delitzsch 1877:60 :C:; Baethgen 1904:285 :C:; Alter 2019:219 :C:), grounding or elaborating on the previous discourse.
 + <Elaboration/reinforcement>: The content of vv. 3ff both reinforces and elaborates upon the previous section (vv. 1-2). 
  + [Elaboration/reinforcement]: Vv. 1–2 claim that 'the one living in the shelter of the Most High' can call YHWH his refuge. In vv. 3ff the psalm directly addresses this individual, providing specific circumstances in which YHWH will act as a refuge for him.
 + <Discourse discontinuity>: Discourse markers connect larger portions of text, often as a marker of elaboration (cf. Locatell 2017:270-271 :M:), and vv. 1-2 and vv. 3ff are two separate, larger portions of the text.
  + <Participant shifts and quoted speech>: The participant shifts and quoted speech in v. 2b indicate a discontinuity in the discourse between v. 2 and v. 3. 
 + <Profile of discourse כִּי>: The כִּי in v. 3 fits the profile of discourse כִּי.
  + <כִּי in v. 3>: The כִּי in v. 3 is followed by a prophetic message towards the person described in vv. 1-2 (Tate 1990:450-451 :C:; Vreugdenhil 2020:146: M:; cf. Radak :C:, Ibn Ezra :C:, Erhlich 1905 :C:); it comes after a prosodic pause; it is not required for the grammaticality of the utterance; and it does not add to its propositional content.
  + <Discourse כִּי in the Hebrew Bible>: In the Hebrew Bible, discourse כִּי is largely concentrated in Ezekiel, Psalms, Chronicles and in oratorical/dialogical texts; it is often accompanied by a speech formula like 'Thus says the Lord'; it often introduces its speech after a prosodic pause; it is not required for the grammaticality of the utterance in question; and it does not add to its propositional content (Locatell 2017:271-272 :M:).
    + [Discourse כִּי in the Hebrew Bible]: E.g., Ezek 5:6; 7:13(1); 14:21(1); 16:59; 23:28, 46; 25:6; 26:7, 19; 29:13; 32:11; 34:11; Ps 37:22; 38:5; 1 Chron 22:9; 23:27; 28:4 (cited in Locatell 2017:271 :M:).

Asseverative

Other translations interpret this כִּי as emphatic/asseverative, with glosses such as Yes, Surely, Certainly. The NIV is representative of such a reading: I will say of the Lord, “He is my refuge and my fortress, my God, in whom I trust.” Surely he will save you from the fowler's snare (NIV; cf. NET, NKJV, SG21, PDV2017).

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[Asseverative]: The כִּי beginning v. 3 is emphatic/asseverative (Calvin 1572 :C:; Tate 1990:446 :C:; Zenger 2005:426 :C:).#dispreferred
 + <כִּי as asseverative>: כִּי sometimes functions as an asseverative particle, meaning 'yea' or 'verily, indeed' (cf. HALOT 470 :L:). #dispreferred
  + [כִּי as asseverative]: E.g., כִּֽי־מ֥וֹת תָּמ֖וּת יוֹנָתָֽן (I Sam. 14:44, ESV; cf. Gen. 18:20; 42:16; 1 Sam. 2:30; 20:9; Isa. 32:13; Job 6:21; 12:2). #dispreferred
  - <No asseverative כִּי>: There is probably no such thing as an 'asseverative כִּי.' All of the supposed examples are better explained in other ways (see Locatell 2017:275-276 :C:; cf. Bandstra 1982:42 :M:; Conklin 2011:66 :M:).
  <_ <Syntactic/pragmatic environment>: Asseverative כִּי occurs mostly in oaths and in the apodosis of conditional clauses. Elsewhere, its existence is dubious (cf. JM §164b :G:).

Complementiser

Finally, some translations adopt a complementiser reading of כִּי, whereby v. 3 introduces (or continues) the speech begun in v. 2b. This interpretation is illustrated by JPS1985: I say of the LORD, my refuge and stronghold, my God in whom I trust, that He will save you from the fowler’s trap, from the destructive plague (CSB).

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[Complementiser]: The כִּי at the beginning of v. 3 is a complementiser for the verb אמר in v. 2. #dispreferred
 + <Common function>: The complementiser function of כִּי is very common (see Locatell 2017:264 :M:). #dispreferred
  <_ <כִּי introducing direct speech not common>: Potential cases of כִּי introducing direct speech "are both extremely rare and easily accommodated by clearer uses" (Locatell 2017:266 :M:).
  + [כִּי as complementizer with verbs of speech]: Jdg. 6:16; Gen. 3:11; 21:30; 26:22; 29:32, 33; 37:35; Ex. 4:25; 1 Kgs. 11:22; 2 Kgs. 8:13 (JM §157c). #dispreferred
   - <כִּי introducing direct speech not common>
 - <Masoretic accents>: It is not common that a complementiser כִּי would begin the quoted speech through a Masoretic verse boundary.
  <_ <Enjambment>: Clausal syntax in poetry sometimes crosses verse boundaries.#dispreferred
   + [Enjambment]: E.g., Pss. 95:7-8; 96:12-13; 98:8-9; 102:10-11. #dispreferred
 + <Direct speech already in v. 2>: The direct speech introduced by אמר has already been presented (without כִּי) in v. 2: מַחְסִ֣י וּמְצוּדָתִ֑י אֱ֝לֹהַ֗י אֶבְטַח־בּֽוֹ.
  - <Part of quotative frame>: The words מַחְסִ֣י וּמְצוּדָתִ֑י אֱ֝לֹהַ֗י אֶבְטַח־בּֽוֹ are better understood as part of the quotative frame: "I say of the LORD, my refuge and stronghold, my God in whom I trust, that..." (JPS85).#dispreferred
   - <אמר as participle>: אמר is probably not a 1cs yiqtol, but a participle (see Exegetical Issue: 'The Grammar and Participants of Ps. 91:2').

v. 9

The כִּי in v. 9 has also been understood a number of different ways.

1. Discourse marker
2. Cataphoric causal conjunction
3. Conditional conjunction
4. Asseverative particle

Discourse marker (preferred)

Some translations interpret the כִּי as a discourse כִּי. The NASB, for example, says, You will only look on with your eyes and see the retaliation against the wicked. For you have made the LORD, my refuge, The Most High, your dwelling place (NASB, cf. NET, LEB, ELB, LUT2017, RVA2015, NBS, NVSR).

The arguments for the discourse marker interpretation of כִּי in v. 9 are very similar to the arguments provided for v. 3. See the argument map above.

Cataphoric causal

Some translations understand כִּי as a cataphoric causal conjunction, introducing the grounds for the proposition which follows (vv. 10ff). The ESV, for example, says Because you have made the LORD your dwelling place— the Most High, who is my refuge— no evil shall be allowed to befall you, no plague come near your tent. (ESV, cf. CSB, JPS 1985, NKJV, BTA4ª, DHH).

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[Cataphoric causal]: The כִּי at the beginning of v. 9 is a cataphoric causal כִּי, providing the grounds for what follows in vv. 10ff.#dispreferred
 + <Discourse semantics>: The interpretation of the כִּי in v. 9 as a cataphoric causal כִּי fits the discourse semantics of vv. 10ff. #dispreferred
 - <Cataphoric causal כִּי>: Cataphoric causal כִּי is not a well-established category of כִּי.

Conditional

Some translations read the כִּי in this verse as introduction a conditional protasis. The NIV, for example, says If you say, "The LORD is my refuge," and you make the Most High your dwelling, no harm will overtake you, no disaster will come near your tent. (NIV, cf. NLT).

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[Conditional]: The כִּי at the beginning of v. 9 introduces the conditional protasis ('if...'), the apodosis of which ('...then') is picked up from v. 10ff (Dahood 1968:28 :C:).#dispreferred
 + <Discourse semantics>: This interpretation of כִּי fits the discourse semantics of vv. 10ff. #dispreferred
 - <Expected syntax>: Clauses introducing a conditional protasis with כִּי almost always have a yiqtol verb are found mostly in casuistic legal texts (Locatell 2017:253 :M:).

Asseverative

As in v. 3, some translations read the כִּי in v. 9 as an asseverative particle. The TOB, for example, says, Oui, Seigneur, c'est toi mon refuge! (cf. EÜ, SG21, BDS, PDV, NFC).

See the argument map for the asseverative reading of כִּי in v. 3.

v. 14

Similarly, כִּי in v. 14 has been understood in different ways.

1. Discourse marker
2. Cataphoric causal conjunction
3. Asseverative particle

Discourse marker (preferred)

At least one translation interprets the כִּי in v. 14 as a discourse marker. The RVA 2015 says, "Porque en mí ha puesto su amor, yo lo libraré..."

The arguments for the discourse marker interpretation of כִּי in v. 14 are very similar to the arguments provided for v. 3. See the argument map above.

Cataphoric causal

Most translations interpret the כִּי in v. 14 as a cataphoric causal. The NIV, for example, says, "Because he loves me," says the LORD, "I will rescue him" (NIV, cf. JPS85, NIV, CSV, ESV, NASB, NET, NKJV, LEB, ZÜR, ELB, EÜ, LUT2017, BTX4ª, TOB, S21, NBS, NVSR, PDV, DHH).

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[Cataphoric causal]: The כִּי at the beginning of v. 14 is a cataphoric causal כִּי, providing the grounds for what follows in vv. 10ff (Calvin 1572 :C:; Hupfeld 1862:18 :C:; Baethgen 1904:286 :C:; Zenger 2005:426 :C:; Goldingay 2008 :C:).#dispreferred
 + <Parallel Structure>: If read as providing grounds for v. 14b, the first line of v. 14 would provide a chiastic structure with the second line. #dispreferred
  + [Parallel Structure]: 14a provides the grounds for 14b; 14d provides the grounds for 14c: כִּ֤י בִ֣י חָ֭שַׁק וַאֲפַלְּטֵ֑הו אֲ֝שַׂגְּבֵ֗הוּ כִּֽי־יָדַ֥ע שְׁמִֽי׃. #dispreferred
  <_ <Result weyiqtol>: A cataphoric causal כִּי is not necessary to express this chiastic structure, since the result semantics of the weyiqtol וַאֲפַלְּטֵ֑הו provides the same structure: "He has clung to me, so I will rescue him".
 - <Cataphoric causal כִּי>: Cataphoric causal כִּי is not an established category for interpreting כִּי.

Asseverative

At least one translation understands the כִּי in v. 14 as an asseverative particle: «Oui, celui qui m’est attaché, je le délivrerai» (BDS).

See the argument map for the asseverative reading of כִּי in v. 3.

Conclusion

In conclusion, despite the diversity of interpretation of these three discourse seams and the polysemous nature of כִּי, a consistent understanding of כִּי as a discourse marker is preferred in Ps. 91:3, 9 and 14.

Not only does this interpretation concur with the independently-identified discourse discontinuities throughout the psalm, it also fits the profile of discourse marker כִּי (cf. Locatell 2017:271-272). First, they introduce elaborations on previous discourse - this is the case with v. 3 elaborating on vv. 1-2, vv. 9-13 elaboration on vv. 3-8, etc. Second, instances of discourse marker כִּי are largely concentrated in Ezekiel, Psalms and Chronicles, the second of which we are concerned with here. Third, they are appropriate in oratorical/dialogical texts, which is exactly what Ps 91 represents—v. 3 begins the speech of the prophetic participant to the king, v. 9 continues the elaboration of this speech, and v. 14 introduces, in oracular fashion, direct speech of YHWH in the first person. Fourth, they often introduce their speech after a prosodic pause - here we have new verse in each case. Fifth, they are not required for the grammaticality of the utterance in question nor do they add to its propositional content - this is also the case of the כִּי preceding vv. 3, 9 and 14.

Research

Translations

v. 3

Ancient

• LXX: ὅτι αὐτὸς ῥύσεταί με ἐκ παγίδος θηρευτῶν
  • "because it is he who will rescue me from a trap of hunters."

• Peshitta: ܕܗܘ ܢܦܨܝܟ ܡܢ ܦܚܐ ܕܬܘܩܠܬܐ
  • "He will deliver you from the share of offense."

• Jerome: quia ipse liberabit te de laqueo venantium.
  • "Because he will free you from the trap of the hunter."

• Targum: אֲרוּם הוּא יִפְצִנָךְ שְׁלֹמֹה בְּרִי מִפַּחָא וְתִקְלָא:.
  • "For he will deliver you, Solomon my son, from the trap and the snare."

Modern

Null

• The Lord will keep you safe from secret traps (CEV)
• He will keep you safe from all hidden dangers (GNT)
• He will rescue you from the fowler’s snare (NABRE)
• Er rettet dich aus der Schlinge des Jägers (ZÜR ≈ GNB, HFA)
• C'est lui qui te délivre du filet du chasseur (TOB ≈ BDS, NFC)
• Él te librará del lazo del pajarero (BTX4ª)
• Sólo él puede librarte de trampas ocultas y plagas mortales (DHH)
• Egli ti libererà dal laccio del cacciatore (CEI)

Discourse Marker

• For he will deliver you from the snare of the fowler (ESV ≈ LEB, NASB, NLT)
• Denn er errettet dich vom Strick des Jägers (Luther 2017 ≈ ELB, EÜ)
• Porque él te librará de la trampa del cazador (RVA 2015)
• Car c'est lui qui te délivre du filet de l'oiseleur (NBS ≈ NSVR)

Asseverative

• Surely he will save you from the fowler's snare (NIV)
• He will certainly rescue you from the snare of the hunter (NET)
• Surely He shall deliver you from the snare of the fowler (NKJV)
• Oui, c’est lui qui te délivre du piège de l’oiseleur (SG21 ≈ PDV)
• Certo egli ti libererà dal laccio dell'uccellatore (LND ≈ NR2006)

Complementiser (vv. 2-3)

• I will say concerning the Lord, who is my refuge and my fortress, my God in whom I trust: He himself will rescue you from the bird trap, from the destructive plague. (CSB)
• I say of the LORD, my refuge and stronghold, my God in whom I trust, that He will save you from the fowler’s trap, from the destructive plague. (JPS 1985)

v. 9

Ancient

• LXX: ὅτι σύ, κύριε, ἡ ἐλπίς μου
  • "because you, O Lord, are my hope"

• Aquila: σὺ γὰρ, κύριε, ἀφοβία μου
  • "For you, Lord, my fearlessness ..."

• Quinta: σὺ γὰρ, θεὲ, ἀφοβία μου.
  • "For you, God, my fearlessness."

• Peshitta: ܡܛܠ ܕܐܢܬ ܗܘ ܡܪܝܐ ܬܘܟܠܢܝ܂
  • "For you, O Lord, are my confidence"

• Jerome: tu enim es Domine spes mea
  • "For you are, Lord, my hope"

• Targum: עֲנֵי שְׁלֹמֹה וְכֵן אֲמַר אֲרוּם אַנְתְּ הוּא יְיָ רוּחֲצָנִי.
  • "Solomon answered, and this is what he said: "Because you, O Lord, are my refuge..."

Modern

Null

• The LORD Most High is your fortress. Run to him for safety (CEV)
• You have made the LORD your defender, the Most High your protector (GNT)
• Du, HERR, bist meine Zuflucht. (ZÜR)

Discourse Marker

• For you have made the LORD, my refuge, The Most High, your dwelling place. (NASB)
• For you have taken refuge in the LORD, my shelter, the sovereign One. (NET)
• For you, O Yahweh, are my refuge. You have made the Most High your dwelling place. (LEB)
• Denn du ⟨hast gesagt⟩: »Der HERR ist meine Zuflucht!« (ELB)
• Denn der HERR ist deine Zuversicht (Luther 2017)
• Porque al SEÑOR, que es mi refugio, al Altísimo, has puesto como tu morada (RVA 2015)
• Car tu es mon abri, Seigneur! (NBS ≈ NVSR)

Cataphoric Causal

• Because you have made the LORD your dwelling place— the Most High, who is my refuge— [no evil shall be allowed to befall you, no plague come near your tent.] (ESV)
• Because you have made the LORD—my refuge, the Most High—your dwelling place, [no harm will come to you; no plague will come near your tent.] (CSB)
• Because you took the LORD—my refuge, the Most High—as your haven, [no harm will befall you, no disease touch your tent.] (JPS 1985)
• Because you have made the Lord, who is my refuge, Even the Most High, your dwelling place, [No evil shall befall you, Nor shall any plague come near your dwelling;] (NKJV)
• Por cuanto has puesto a YHVH, que es mi refugio, a Elyon, por habitación tuya, [no te sobrevendrá mal, ni plaga alguna tocará tu morada] (BTA4ª ≈ DHH)

Conditional

• If you say, "The LORD is my refuge," and you make the Most High your dwelling, [no harm will overtake you, no disaster will come near your tent.] (NIV)
• If you make the LORD your refuge, if you make the Most High your shelter, [no evil will conquer you; no plague will come near your home.] (NLT)

Asseverative

• Ja, du, HERR, bist meine Zuflucht. (EÜ)
• «Oui, tu es mon refuge, Eternel!» (SG21 ≈ BDS, PDV, NFC)
• Oui, Seigneur, c'est toi mon refuge! (TOB)

v. 14

Ancient

• LXX: ὅτι ἐπʼ ἐμὲ ἤλπισεν, καὶ ῥύσομαι αὐτόν·.
  • "Because in me he hoped, I will also rescue him."

• Peshitta: ܡܛܠ ܕܠܝ ܒܥܐ ܐܦܨܝܘܗܝ
  • "Because he has sought me I will deliver him"

• Jerome: quoniam mihi adhesit et liberabo eum
  • "Since he clung to me and I will free him"

• Targum: מְטוּל דִי בְמֵימְרִי אִתְרְעִי וַאֲשֵׁזְבִנֵיהּ.
  • "Because he delights in my Memra, I will rescue him."

Modern

Null

• «Il est attaché à moi, dit le Seigneur, je le mettrai à l'abri» (NFC)

Discourse Marker

• “Porque en mí ha puesto su amor, yo lo libraré (RVA 2015)

Cataphoric Causal

• Because he is devoted to Me I will deliver him (JPS 1985)
• "Because he loves me," says the LORD, "I will rescue him" (NIV ≈ CSV, ESV, NASB, NET, NKJV)
• Because he loves me, therefore I will deliver him (LEB)
• Weil er zu mir hält, will ich ihn retten (ZÜR ≈ ELB, EÜ)
• Er liebt mich, darum will ich ihn erretten (Luther 2017)
• Por cuanto en Mí ha puesto su amor, yo también lo libraré (BTX4ª)
• - Puisqu'il s'attache à moi, je le libère (TOB ≈ SG21, NBS, NVSR, PDV)
• Yo lo pondré a salvo, fuera del alcance de todos, porque él me ama y me conoce. (DHH)
• Lo salverò, perché a me si è affidato (CEI)
• Poiché egli ha riposto in me il suo amore io lo libererò (LND ≈ NR2006)

Asseverative

• Oui, celui qui m’est attaché, je le délivrerai (BDS)

Secondary Literature

Commentaries

Alter, R. 2019. The Hebrew Bible. Volume 3, the Writings: A Translation with Commentary. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company.

Baethgen, F. 1904. Die Psalmen. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht.

Calvin, J. 1572. Commentary on the Book of Psalms, Volume III. Grand Rapids, MI: CCEL.

Dahood, M. 1968. Psalms II, Psalms 51-100: Introduction, Translation and Notes. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

Goldingay, J. 2008. Psalms, Volume III: Psalms 90-150. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.

Hupfeld, H. 1862. Die Psalmen. Gotha: F.A. Perthes.

Tate, M. E. 1990. Psalms 51-100. Dallas, TX: Word Books.

Zenger, E. 2005. Psalms II: A Commentary on Psalms 51-100. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press.

Texts, Editions and Translations

Pietersma, Albert (tr.) 2009. NETS translation of the Psalms.

Stec, David M. 2004. The Targum of Psalms: Translated, with a Critical Introduction, Apparatus, and Notes. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press.

Taylor, Richard A. in Bali, Joseph & George Kiraz [eds.]. 2020. The Psalms According to the Syriac Peshitta Version with English Translation. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press.

Monographs

Alter, R. 2011. The Art of Biblical Poetry. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Bandstra, B. L. The Syntax of Particle KY in Biblical Hebrew and Ugaritic. PhD Dissertation, Yale University.

Berlin, A. 2008. The Dynamics of Biblical Parallelism. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.

Conklin, B. 2011. Oath Formulas in Biblical Hebrew. Winona Lake, MI: Eisenbrauns.

Locatell, C. S. 2017. Grammatical Polysemy in the Hebrew Bible: A Cognitive Linguistic Approach to כי. PhD Dissertation, Stellenbosch University.

Vreugdenhil, Gerrit C. 2020. Psalm 91 and Demonic Menace. Leiden: Brill.

Lexica

Diggle, James. 2021. The Cambridge Greek Lexicon. Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

References

91:3 91:9 91:14