About the Semantics Layer

Semantics is the study of how language is used to represent meaning. The goal of semantic analysis for interpreting and translating the Bible is to understand the meaning of words and how they relate to each other in context. We want to understand what is implicit about word meaning – and thus assumed by the original audience – and make it explicit – and thus clear for us who are removed by time, language, and culture. The semantics layer is composed of three major branches: lexical semantics, phrase-level semantics and verbal semantics.

Semantics Visuals for Psalm 91

Lexical and Phrase-level Semantics Diagram

Visualization	Description
	The prepositional phrase is indicated by a solid green oval.
	The construct chain is indicated by a solid yellow oval.
	When the conjunction ו appears at the phrase-level (not clause-level), it is indicated by a solid light purple oval.
	The article is indicated by a solid blue oval.

See our growing collection of Venn Diagrams, not only for Psalm 91, but for all of the psalms.
See SDBH on Psalm 91.

vv. 1-2

For the imagery of shade, see the following table:

The contents of the speech both here and in v. 9a contain the confession that YHWH is the king's refuge,^[1] for the semantics of which see the following Venn diagram:

For the imagery of fortress see the following table:

v. 3

For the imagery of the hunter's trap see the following table:^[2]

v. 4

Note that the lamed in לָ֭ךְ functions to introduce the contact with the undergoer (i.e., the direct object; BHRG §39.13[2]) in the verb phrase יָ֣סֶךְ לָ֭ךְ, so should only be glossed in translation where necessary under these semantic circumstances.
Note that the verb find refuge (חסה) in v. 4b is from the same root as refuge in vv. 2 and 9a.
The word translated wall (סֹחֵרָה) appears only here in the whole Hebrew Bible (see Macintosh 1973 for extended discussion). It is evidently derived from the root סחר, to go around/trade (ּBDB, DCH, HALOT), so its rare form here is extended from go around >> protect and thus nominalised as wall of protection (cf. Macintosh 1973: 60).^[3] Gesenius' Handwörterbuch (2013, 882) notes the following cognate exemplars: Akkadian sihirtu as Umkreis (perimeter) and Umgebung (surroundings); igar sihirti as Umfassungsmauer (perimeter wall); Syriac. sāḥartā, sḥārtā as ummauerte Einfriedung (walled enclosure).
For the semantics of אֱמֶת, here glossed faithfulness, see the following Venn diagram:

For the imagery of both wings and shield see the following tables:

vv. 5-6

The word translated disaster (קֶטֶב) is quite rare in the Hebrew Bible, occurring only here and in Deut. 32:24, Isa. 28.2, and Hos. 13.14. It has been rendered wind (that devastates) (ܪܘܚܐ; Peshitta), chance, mishap (συμπτώματος; LXX), company of demons (מסיעת שידין; Targum Psalms) and sting (morsu; Jerome). The latter is the most popular take in Hos. 13:14, as in the sting of death, though both Dearman (2010) and Goldingay (2021) render the word here as destruction, while Gruber (2017: 547-548) prefers plagues or pestilence. It seems, rather, that plagues or pestilence provide the surrounding context of the few uses of קֶטֶב and thus cause the cutting off, which may be the semantic primitive, as Arabic qaḍaba, qaṭaba as abschneiden (cut off) or stutzen (prune, trim) and Ethiopian qaṭaba kürzen (cut) would seem to indicate (Gesenius 2013: 1162). Thus the more neutral extension cutting off >> disaster has been preferred here.

v. 7

The final instances of the preposition מִן throughout vv. 3-7 (see v. 3 above) are to be interpreted as orientation in space (BHRG §39.14(2)(a)), rather than detachment, as the previous cases.

v. 8

The word שִׁלֻמָה is another hapax (a word occurring only here in the Hebrew Bible). It follows the piel nominative pattern,^[4] but is much more common as a masculine form, שִׁלּוּם, as the consonants שלום in 11Q11 of this verse. Nonetheless, the rare feminine form of this piel pattern is not unheard of (see בִּכּוּרָה in Mic. 7:1 and Hos. 9:19; מִלֻּאָה in Ex. 28:17; 39:13), so should be considered semantically equivalent to the masculine (Segal 1909: 60), as the ancient versions^[5] and our translation (punishment) indicate.

v. 9

For the imagery of home see the following table:

v. 10

The word translated come (תְאֻנֶּ֣ה) is rare, occurring in the pual stem only here and in Prov. 12:21. In the latter case (לֹא־יְאֻנֶּ֣ה לַצַּדִּ֣יק כָּל־אָ֑וֶן), its sense is compatible with that of Ps. 91:10, as the ESV's No ill befalls the righteous, though it has been diversely interpreted by the ancient versions.^[6] Nevertheless, in view of the quite uniform interpretation among the ancient versions of Ps. 91:10^[7] and the pattern of verbs of movement and approaching (cf. v. 10b), the neutral come has been preferred here.
For the word translated harm (רָעָה) as forming part of the consequences of exile, see Deut. 32:23.
The preposition בְּ in the reach verb phrase is used to introduce the object of reaching (GKC §119k), and should thus only be glossed in translation if necessary under these semantic circumstances.
Although the use of אֹהֶל (lit. tent) could indicate the king's temporary lodgings either travelling or on a war campaign (Tate 1990: 456), it is more likely that is simply refers to where someone lives (Vreugdenhil 2020: 307). Thus, we have maintained the more neutral home.

v. 11

For the semantics of angel (מַלְאָךְ) see the following Venn diagram:^[8]

The preposition לְ in the order verb phrase functions as "specification" (IBHS §11.2.10.d), hence concerning you.
Nonetheless, we read ways here as abstract, i.e., in all of your life experiences, rather than specific paths of travel.^[9]

v. 12

The stumbling mentioned here is "usually used in a figurative way to denote sustaining any kind of hardship in life" (SDBH).

v. 13

For the imagery of lions and snakes, see the following tables:^[10]

v. 14

v. 15

v. 16

Verbal Semantics Chart

Conjugations
qatal	yiqtol-jussive
wayyiqtol (following qatal)*	cohortative
yiqtol	participle
wayyiqtol (following yiqtol)*	wayyiqtol (following participle)*
weyiqtol	inf. construct
weqatal	inf. absolute
*Wayyiqtol is colored a darker version of the conjugation it follows.

Relative tense arrows
Relative tense arrows (placed within the appropriate 'Fut/Pres/Past' column) are color coded according to the conjugation of the verb. The arrows in the table below are colored according to the typical uses of the conjugations.
After/posterior/future	Imminent future	Simultaneous/right now	Recent past	Before/anterior/past
← ←	↤	↓↓↓	↦	→ →

Aspect
	Continuous	Habitual or iterative	Stative	Perfective
Encoded in words	⟲	⟲⟲⟲	⎯	•
Inferable from context	⟲	⟲⟲⟲	⎯	•

Reference point movement
Movement	No movement
⇐	⇍

Modality
indicative	purpose/result
jussive	necessity
imperative	possible
cohortative	probable
wish	ability
(past) conditional	interrogative, etc.

If an emendation or revocalization is preferred, that emendation or revocalization will be marked in the Hebrew text of all the visuals.

Emendations/Revocalizations legend
Emended text	Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is indicated by blue asterisks on either side of the emendation.
Revocalized text	Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is indicated by purple asterisks on either side of the revocalization.

V. 5 begins with the verbal phrase You will not be afraid (לֹא־תִ֭ירָא). For a negated verb as prohibition, we would typically expect אַל תִּירָה, with אַל in the place of לֹא as our verse has it.^[11] Instances in which לֹא תִּירָא is unambigously prohibitive typically involve the context of idolatry and serving other gods (Judg. 6:10; 2 Kgs. 17:35, 37ff; Isa. 8:12, 19), which is not the case here. Thus it is safe to conclude that the verb phrase as we have it here is not strictly deontically modal and does not express a prohibitive command.
The event semantics of v. 7 make quite plausible the modality of possibility, hence the concessive though translation offered here.^[12]

Bibliography

↑ "a place of safety from danger, relief after stress, defense from an enemy, protection from the heat of the sun, overall security... The writers mainly picture God as someone "in" whom the covenant people take refuge" (Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 2356-58).
↑ "Whereas bow and arrow [cf. v. 5] tended to be the characteristic hunting gear of the élite, the common hunter largely resorted to nets and traps. These nets and traps were used above all to catch fish, fowl and small game... We often encounter references to nets and traps in the Ancient Near East. It appears to have been a popular image for typifying enemies who, hunter-like or fowler-like, sought to catch a man in a net or trap." (Vreugdenhil 2020, 230, 233; cf. Ps. 124:7; 142:4; Prov. 7:23). Furthermore, "as soldiers knew from grim experience, disease was almost as effective a killer during the war as was actual combat" (Jenkins 2023: 148; cf. Vreugdenhil 2020, 304; Deut. 28:21; 32:24; Jer. 21:6).
↑ Morphologically, "The ground form qâṭǐl also becomes in Hebrew almost invariably קוֹטֵל... The fem. of the substantives has ē (lengthened from ǐ) retained before the tone, e.g. יֹלֵדָה a woman in travail, בֹּגֵדָה a treacherous woman... the participles as a rule have the form יֹלְדָה... the original ǐ having become shewa; however, the form with ṣere occurs also in the [ptc.] ... in pause" (GKC §84as).
↑ The "u" theme vowel is evident in the waw mater lectionis provided by Kennicott mss 30, 38, 39, 40, 43, 73, 74, 76, 97, 117, 118, 121, 131, 133, 139, 142, 148, 156, 166, 170, 220, 226, 228, 245, 664, 680, 681, as well as 11Q11's שלום.
↑ These read ἀνταπόδοσιν, ultionem, ܦܘܪܥܢܗܘܢ and Targum Psalms' slightly different How the wicked are being destroyed (Stec 2004: 175; וְהֵיךְ מִתְגַמְרִין רַשִׁיעֵי תֶחֱמֵי).
↑ See the LXX's ἀρέσει (be pleasing), the Vulgates contristabit (sadden), the Peshitta's ܫܦܝܪ and Targum Proverbs שפיר (be attractive).
↑ προσελεύσεται, accedet, ܬܬܩܪܒ (come near, approach), תְאָרַע לָךְ (befall you). Compare, however, Aquila's οὐ μεταχθήσεται πρὸς σὲ κακία (Harm will not move towards you) and Symmachus' οὐ κατισχύσει σου κακὸν (Evil will not prevail against you).
↑ Regarding angels, the Dictionary of Biblical Imagery notes, "Their primary activities are praise and worship of God in his heavenly court, making announcements and carrying messages on behalf of God to humans, intervening with guidance and protection in the lives of people, and dispensing the judgments of God" (Ryken, Wilhoit, Longman III (eds.) 1998: 127).
↑ Notwithstanding Tate's (1990: 456) suggestion that tent in v. 10 indicates travelling on a war campaign.
↑ For the participant set list of the king's enemies, see the visual under hunter in v. 3 of these notes, with the inclusion of lions and snakes, as recently noted by Jenkins: "Even at the earliest stage, it might have implied trampling metaphorical enemies, such as rival kings or chieftains" (2023: 33).
↑ The ancient versions are either ambiguous or, in the case of the LXX, clearly a future indicative: You will not fear (οὐ φοβηθήσῃ).
↑ Tate prefers a more transparent conditional reading, noting, "The point is not that a thousand or ten thousand have fallen, but if they do, the cause of their destruction "will not come near you" (1990: 456).

[1] "a place of safety from danger, relief after stress, defense from an enemy, protection from the heat of the sun, overall security... The writers mainly picture God as someone "in" whom the covenant people take refuge" (Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 2356-58).

[2] "Whereas bow and arrow [cf. v. 5] tended to be the characteristic hunting gear of the élite, the common hunter largely resorted to nets and traps. These nets and traps were used above all to catch fish, fowl and small game... We often encounter references to nets and traps in the Ancient Near East. It appears to have been a popular image for typifying enemies who, hunter-like or fowler-like, sought to catch a man in a net or trap." (Vreugdenhil 2020, 230, 233; cf. Ps. 124:7; 142:4; Prov. 7:23). Furthermore, "as soldiers knew from grim experience, disease was almost as effective a killer during the war as was actual combat" (Jenkins 2023: 148; cf. Vreugdenhil 2020, 304; Deut. 28:21; 32:24; Jer. 21:6).

[3] Morphologically, "The ground form qâṭǐl also becomes in Hebrew almost invariably קוֹטֵל... The fem. of the substantives has ē (lengthened from ǐ) retained before the tone, e.g. יֹלֵדָה a woman in travail, בֹּגֵדָה a treacherous woman... the participles as a rule have the form יֹלְדָה... the original ǐ having become shewa; however, the form with ṣere occurs also in the [ptc.] ... in pause" (GKC §84as).

[4] The "u" theme vowel is evident in the waw mater lectionis provided by Kennicott mss 30, 38, 39, 40, 43, 73, 74, 76, 97, 117, 118, 121, 131, 133, 139, 142, 148, 156, 166, 170, 220, 226, 228, 245, 664, 680, 681, as well as 11Q11's שלום.

[5] These read ἀνταπόδοσιν, ultionem, ܦܘܪܥܢܗܘܢ and Targum Psalms' slightly different How the wicked are being destroyed (Stec 2004: 175; וְהֵיךְ מִתְגַמְרִין רַשִׁיעֵי תֶחֱמֵי).

[6] See the LXX's ἀρέσει (be pleasing), the Vulgates contristabit (sadden), the Peshitta's ܫܦܝܪ and Targum Proverbs שפיר (be attractive).

[7] προσελεύσεται, accedet, ܬܬܩܪܒ (come near, approach), תְאָרַע לָךְ (befall you). Compare, however, Aquila's οὐ μεταχθήσεται πρὸς σὲ κακία (Harm will not move towards you) and Symmachus' οὐ κατισχύσει σου κακὸν (Evil will not prevail against you).

[8] Regarding angels, the Dictionary of Biblical Imagery notes, "Their primary activities are praise and worship of God in his heavenly court, making announcements and carrying messages on behalf of God to humans, intervening with guidance and protection in the lives of people, and dispensing the judgments of God" (Ryken, Wilhoit, Longman III (eds.) 1998: 127).

[9] Notwithstanding Tate's (1990: 456) suggestion that tent in v. 10 indicates travelling on a war campaign.

[10] For the participant set list of the king's enemies, see the visual under hunter in v. 3 of these notes, with the inclusion of lions and snakes, as recently noted by Jenkins: "Even at the earliest stage, it might have implied trampling metaphorical enemies, such as rival kings or chieftains" (2023: 33).

[11] The ancient versions are either ambiguous or, in the case of the LXX, clearly a future indicative: You will not fear (οὐ φοβηθήσῃ).

[12] Tate prefers a more transparent conditional reading, noting, "The point is not that a thousand or ten thousand have fallen, but if they do, the cause of their destruction "will not come near you" (1990: 456).

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Psalm 91 Semantics

Contents