Psalm 51 Semantics

Psalm Overview

• Grammar
• Semantics
• Story behind the Psalm
• Discourse
• Poetics

About the Semantics Layer

Semantics is the study of how language is used to represent meaning. The goal of semantic analysis for interpreting and translating the Bible is to understand the meaning of words and how they relate to each other in context. We want to understand what is implicit about word meaning – and thus assumed by the original audience – and make it explicit – and thus clear for us who are removed by time, language, and culture. The semantics layer is composed of three major branches: lexical semantics, phrase-level semantics and verbal semantics. (Click 'Expand' to the right for more information.)

About Lexical Semantics

One major branch of semantic study is lexical semantics, which refers to the study of word meanings. It examines semantic range (=possible meanings of a word), the relationship between words (e.g. synonymy, hyponymy), as well as the relationship between words and larger concepts (conceptual domains). One component of our approach involves not only the study of the Hebrew word meaning, but also of our own assumptions about word meaning in modern languages. Because the researcher necessarily starts with their own cultural assumptions (in our case, those of Western-trained scholars), this part of the analysis should be done afresh for every culture.

For a detailed description of our method, see the Lexical Semantics Creator Guidelines.

About Phrase-level Semantics

The Phrase-level Semantics layer analyses the meaning of syntactic units which are larger than the level of the word and smaller than the level of the clause. Specifically, this layer analyses the meaning of prepositional phrases (e.g., לְאִישׁ), construct phrases (e.g., אִישׁ אֱלֹהִים), phrases formed by a coordinating waw conjunction (e.g., אִישׁ וְאִשָּׁה) and noun phrases which consist of a noun plus a determiner (e.g., הָאִישׁ) or a quantifier (e.g., כֹּל אִישׁ).

For a detailed description of our method, see the Phrase-level Semantics Creator Guidelines.

About Verbal Semantics

This sub-layer focuses on the relationship between verbs, time and modality. These are important categories for interpretation and translation, and how one analyses a verb can have a significant effect on how it is rendered. This sub-layer has been through several iterations, as it strives to accomplish two things: (1) Transparency for the native Hebrew structures, and (2) Transparency for the interpretation necessary to translate the verbal semantics into other languages.

For a detailed description of our method, see the Verbal Semantics Creator Guidelines.

Semantics Visuals for Psalm 51

Lexical and Phrase-level Semantics Diagram

(For more information, click "Phrase-level Legend" below.)

Phrase-level Legend

Visualization	Description
	The prepositional phrase is indicated by a solid green oval.
	The construct chain is indicated by a solid yellow oval.
	When the conjunction ו appears at the phrase-level (not clause-level), it is indicated by a solid light purple oval.
	The article is indicated by a solid blue oval.

• See our growing collection of Venn Diagrams, not only for Psalm 51, but for all of the psalms.
• See SDBH on Psalm 51.

v. 1

v. 2

• There is a play on words with the expression בא אל used in two very different senses in this superscription (royal audience vs. sexual intercourse).
• The construct chain אֶל־בַּת־שָֽׁבַע is a euphemism for sexual intercourse.

v. 3

• רַחֲמִים is a plural abstract noun referring to the affectionate and sympathetic internal feeling one has towards another, which is best rendered by the singular abstract noun "compassion" in English.
• פֶּשַׁע refers to "action by which humans or groups defy an authority or a standard of behavior."

v. 4-5

• If הַרְבֵּה/הֶרֶב is read as an imperative (or infinitive absolute), then it means to do an activity multiple times. In conjunction (i.e., hendiadys) with כבס, it means roughly "wash a lot/thoroughly." If הַרְבֵּה is read as an adverb, it modifies the verb with essentially the same intensifying meaning "wash thoroughly." The sense in context is not repeated iterations of distinct washing events, but rather repeated action within a single, thorough washing event.
• עָוֹן refers to "a deed of deliberate wrongdoing resulting in a state of guilt which requires punishment."

v. 6

• The translation "against you, you alone" for לְךָ לְבַדְּךָ is probably overly literal. לְבַד with the meaning "alone/only" normally takes a pronoun that is redundant from the perspective of English, so there is no need to replicate the personal pronoun in English translation.
• לְבַדְּךָ is an idiomatic expression that often functions like the English adverb "alone." BHRG (§40.32) treats this as a "quantifying" adverb.
• The set expression בעיני is very common with the meaning "in the opinion of; from the perspective of." Modifying הָרַע, it means that the psalmist has done what God considers to be evil.
• The idiom בְּעֵינֶ֗יךָ indicates the perspective from which the psalmist's action is evaluated as evil.
• לְמַעַן here probably has the resultative meaning "such/so that" rather than indicating purpose.
• זכה in Classical Hebrew means to be "upright and innocent in character and behavior," which in context means that God cannot be faulted (and therefore is vindicated against all possible charges of injustice) when he judges. There is an intentional blending of metaphors here, where God is judged by others in his capacity as judge. The qal vocalization suggests that the verb refers to God's faultless character that results in his vindication, whereas a passive construction might have been expected if תזכה were referring to the act of his vindication (so NIV "justified"). Several ancient versions translate תִּזְכֶּה with the sense "be victorious" (e.g., LXX νικήσῃς), which seems to be a metaphorical extension of the concept of vindication in court. The fully developed meaning "to win" appears to be a late development in the Hebrew language without clear parallel in Classical Hebrew texts. The ISV reading "clear" seems to imply clear-sightedness or clear thinking on the part of God rather than his being "in the clear" when others are critiquing his judgments; this sense is not attested for this verb and disrupts the parallel with תִּצְדַּק.

v. 7

• In the prepositional phrases בְּעָו֥וֹן and בְחֵ֗טְא, the psalmist is describing (perhaps hyperbolically) the sinful/guilty condition in which he was born. The alternative interpretation that he was born by means of his mother's sins/guilt does not fit the context.
• חֵטְא (also v. 11) can mean "sin" like its more common and cognate synonym חַטָּאת (see vv. 4, 5), but חֵטְא also often has the nuance "(state of) sin," emphasizing the culpability or "guilt" incurred by sin.

v. 8

• אֱמֶת can be used for the abstract concept of propositional "truth," which makes sense in parallel with חָכְמָה "wisdom." But in reference to human character, אֱמֶת refers to one's faithfulness and trustworthiness. This latter element of character seems to be emphasized in context, more so than propositional truth statements.
• The meaning of טֻחוֹת is uncertain, both here and in Job 38:36. In Psa 51:8, the most plausible meaning is "covered (places)," based on the root טוח that means to "cover," such as with plaster or paint. In parallel with סָתֻם "closed off," the reference seems to be to areas (of the person) that are invisible and inaccessible except to God. See The Meaning of טֻּחוֹת and סָתֻם in Ps 51:8.
• For a discussion about the verbal semantics of תוֹדִיעֵֽנִי, see The Verbal Semantics of Ps 51:8b.

v. 9

• בְאֵז֣וֹב "Hyssop" was commonly used in purification rituals.
• In the phrase וּמִשֶּׁ֥לֶג, the psalmist is to become whiter than snow. The comparative sense is dependent upon the attribute "white" and thus the entire verbal expression.

v. 10

• שָׂשׂוֹן and שִׂמְחָה here may be abstract emotions concretized as things that can be heard, or else the psalmist longs to hear "(audible expressions of) gladness and joy," whether produced by himself or others.

v. 11

• See v. 7 for notes on חֵטְא.

v. 12

• A רוּחַ נָכוֹן "steadfast spirit" is stable in a moral sense, reliably and consistently exhibiting upright behavior, rather than wavering in doubt, despair, and/or disobedience.

v. 13

• In the case of ר֥וּחַ קָ֝דְשְׁךָ֗, both "holiness" and "your" modify the spirit. In the context of the Hebrew Bible, God's holy spirit is most likely to be understood as an immaterial emanation or hypostasis of himself that is God's energizing presence. A more explicitly trinitarian reading would be to understand the Holy Spirit as a distinct person of the godhead in relationship to "God" [= the Father] through whom God remains close to the psalmist.

v. 14

• There is no discernible semantic difference between the different noun forms יֵשַׁע "salvation/victory" (v. 14) and תְּשׁוּעָה "salvation/victory" (v. 16). The latter is more common in prose texts, whereas the former regularly occurs in poetic texts.
• נְדִיבָה can have two basic senses, namely willingness and nobility. If willingness is understood as the main sense here, then the idea is either that the psalmist's spirit is willing to walk faithfully with God or that God's Spirit is generously inclined towards the psalmist. If nobility is the main sense, then the spirit is portrayed as honorable, dignified, and beneficent, whether it be the psalmist's or God's.
• The adjective נָדִיב can have two basic meanings: "willing" and "noble." The former refers to being voluntarily amenable to doing something, which overlaps very well with the English gloss "willing." Sometimes English "willing," however, can have a negative connotation of someone who will do something if required, but who is not excited about it. This connotation is not evident with the Hebrew נָדִיב. The second possible meaning of נָדִיב is "noble," referring to individuals from the higher echelons of society who are socially expected to behave in a dignified, just, and magnanimously generous manner. If this meaning is understood in Ps 51:14, then an alternative gloss like "generous" or "magnanimous" would be more appropriate. Both basic senses are also possible if נְדִיבָה in Ps 51:14 is read as an abstract noun (instead of an adjective), though the only other attested cases of the noun seem to align with the concept of "nobility."

v. 15

• יָשׁוּבוּ may be taken to imply that the sinners will "return" to a previously experienced state of proximity to YHWH, but it need not do so. The preferred gloss "turn back" allows for this possibility without requiring it, since the idea of reversal of course (i.e., away from a sinful, contrary trajectory) sufficiently accounts for the semantics of שׁוב.

v. 16

• The detachment shown in מִדָּמִ֨ים can refer to bloodshed perpetrated by the psalmist, bloodshed for which the psalmist is potentially liable by failure to act, or bloodshed intended against the psalmist.
• The abstract plural דָּמִים is a technical term for bloodshed (usually violent) or the resulting culpability (i.e., "bloodguilt"). The theme of דָּמִים and its negative consequences for perpetrators permeates the David narratives. In light of David's murder of Uriah, the reference to דָּמִים in Psalm 51 may be one of the main reasons why this psalm is associated with David and his affair with Bathsheba. The gloss "bloodshed" intentionally leaves open the question of whether דָּמִים refers to forgiveness for blood shed by the psalmist/David or the psalmist's deliverance from having his own blood shed (whether by enemies or by God in punishment for acknowledged sin). Goldingay 1978 interprets the expression as the psalmist's attempt to avoid incurring bloodguilt for not calling out sinners as a watchman (cf. Ezek 3:17–19; 33:7–9), such that "he prays, 'deliver me from incurring blood- guilt.' He prays to be kept from becoming answerable for the death of other sinners by failing to challenge and invite them to return to God.'
• The distinctive use of the plural דָמִים is well captured by the English gloss "bloodshed." Both usually entail violent killing involving the spilling of blood. דָמִים usually refers to the unjustified shedding of innocent blood, whereas "bloodshed" can additionally be used to refer to fighting in war without the same criminal connotations. The usage of דָמִים to refer to culpability or guilt is not easy to render in English, and the alternative gloss "bloodguilt" is not in common English usage. Still, "bloodshed" in the context of individuals may evoke connotations of guilt for the perpetrator.

• The redundant use of אֱלֹהִים as a proper noun followed immediately by אֱלֹהֵי תְּשׁוּעָתִי (where אֱלֹהִים is a common noun) is odd and probably goes back to an original phrase יהוה אֱלֹהֵי תְּשׁוּעָתִי 'YHWH, the God of my salvation' (cf. Ps 88:2). The personal name יהוה was frequently replaced with the more generic proper noun אֱלֹהִים in the so-called Elohistic Psalter (Pss 42–83/89*). The same may also have been the case for the less obvious cases of אֱלֹהִים as a proper noun in Ps 51:3, 12, and 19(twice). Though this Elohistic editing probably does not represent the earliest text of Ps 51, we have not attempted to reconstruct an earlier Yahwistic version of the psalm, since the Elohistic editing is generally considered to have been an early stage in the formation of the Psalter and thus part of the received editorial tradition.
• For information on תְּשׁוּעָה "salvation/victory", see the note on v. 14.
• צִדְקָתֶךָ can refer to a state of righteous character or a concrete right(eous) act (cf. v. 21). In parallel with תְּהִלָּה (v. 17), both interpretations are possible here. If forgiveness of David's bloodguilt incurred from the murder of Uriah is in view in v. 16a, it is hard to see why such forgiveness (i.e., the concrete act) would be called "righteous." On the other hand, if the psalmist desires deliverance from violence perpetrated by others, then such deliverance could naturally be described as a righteous act. Regardless of whoever is doing the bloodshed, praise for God's righteous character would be appropriate, and this is preferred here.

v. 17

• תְּהִלָּה normally refers to the act or content of praise, but can sometimes refer to praiseworthy actions.

v. 18

• The basic meaning of תִרְצֶה is "to desire" (cf. note on v. 20), which works very well in this context in parallel to תַחְפֹּץ. The verb רצה is often glossed "accept" in sacrificial contexts, since only sacrifices that please the deity are deemed acceptable and hence efficacious.

v. 19

v. 20

• The hiphil הֵיטִיבָה is generally understood to refer to the expression of goodness or good disposition by the subject, but could alternatively be treated as a causative or factitive verb inducing a state of goodness or prosperity in the object (cf. NIV "May it please you to prosper Zion"). TLOT (2.488) considers the former to be "formally correct," though emphasizing that "the content seems to have less to do with the deed itself than with the consequence of the deed." Here the goodness and magnanimity of God's well-disposed actions towards Jerusalem seem to be in view. The anticipated consequence of this intervention is the restoration and prosperity of Jerusalem, but the verbal semantics should not be directly construed in this way.
• The expression בִ֭רְצוֹנְךָ describes the manner or mode in which God's goodness is expressed to Jerusalem, namely in a manner pleasing to God. An alternative possible analysis would be indicating cause, "because it pleases you," but this sense is not well-established.
• רָצוֹן refers to the will, namely what one desires or intends. Following vv. 18–19, the idea of God's good pleasure or desiderative will seems more prominent than his sovereign decretive will.
• בנה means to "build," but in contexts where prior buildings have been constructed and damaged/destroyed, it could be better translated into English as "rebuild." Here, a neutral form has been selected to retain the ambiguity of the Hebrew. See Psalm 51:20-21 and the Story Behind Psalm 51.
• For חוֹמ֥וֹת יְרוּשָׁלִָֽם, while in English the verb "to please" takes an object who is pleased, perhaps it is better to frame the concept based on the verb רצה as the subject who experiences pleasure, e.g., "what you take pleasure in".

v. 21

• There is no obvious semantic difference between צֶדֶק and צְדָקָה (v. 16), though צְדָקָה is sometimes more concrete (HALOT). Here, צֶדֶק seems to indicate what are the "right" (i.e., correct or appropriate) sacrifices, rather than the character of the offerer. Cf. Deut 33:19.
• Grammatically, זִבְחֵי צֶדֶק could be understood as the first element of a three-element list, but עוֹלָה וְכָלִיל are more properly subsets or examples of זִבְחֵי צֶדֶק.
• כָלִיל refers to a type of burnt offering that is entirely consumed by fire, unlike other burnt offerings where parts of the animal are eaten by the participants.

Verbal Semantics Chart

(For more information, click "Verbal Legend" below.)

Verbal Legend

Conjugations
qatal	yiqtol-jussive
wayyiqtol (following qatal)*	cohortative
yiqtol	participle
wayyiqtol (following yiqtol)*	wayyiqtol (following participle)*
weyiqtol	inf. construct
weqatal	inf. absolute
*Wayyiqtol is colored a darker version of the conjugation it follows.

Relative tense arrows
Relative tense arrows (placed within the appropriate 'Fut/Pres/Past' column) are color coded according to the conjugation of the verb. The arrows in the table below are colored according to the typical uses of the conjugations.
After/posterior/future	Imminent future	Simultaneous/right now	Recent past	Before/anterior/past
← ←	↤	↓↓↓	↦	→ →

Aspect
	Continuous	Habitual or iterative	Stative	Perfective
Encoded in words	⟲	⟲⟲⟲	⎯	•
Inferable from context	⟲	⟲⟲⟲	⎯	•

Reference point movement
Movement	No movement
⇐	⇍

Modality
indicative	purpose/result
jussive	necessity
imperative	possible
cohortative	probable
wish	ability
(past) conditional	interrogative, etc.

If an emendation or revocalization is preferred, that emendation or revocalization will be marked in the Hebrew text of all the visuals.

Emendations/Revocalizations legend
*Emended text*	Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is indicated by blue asterisks on either side of the emendation.
*Revocalized text*	Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is indicated by purple asterisks on either side of the revocalization.

Bibliography

Goldingay, John. 1978. “Psalm 51:16a (English 51:14a).” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 40, no. 3: 388–90.

Klein, Ernest. 1987. A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Hebrew Language. Jerusalem: Carta.

Mowinckel, Sigmund. 1930. "טחות und שֹכוי. Eine Studie zur Astrologie des Alten Testaments." Acta Orientalia 8: 1–44.

Shepherd, David J. 2023. King David, Innocent Blood, and Bloodguilt. Oxford: OUP.