About the Semantics Layer

Semantics is the study of how language is used to represent meaning. The goal of semantic analysis for interpreting and translating the Bible is to understand the meaning of words and how they relate to each other in context. We want to understand what is implicit about word meaning – and thus assumed by the original audience – and make it explicit – and thus clear for us who are removed by time, language, and culture. The semantics layer is composed of three major branches: lexical semantics, phrase-level semantics and verbal semantics. (Click 'Expand' to the right for more information.)

About Lexical Semantics

One major branch of semantic study is lexical semantics, which refers to the study of word meanings. It examines semantic range (=possible meanings of a word), the relationship between words (e.g. synonymy, hyponymy), as well as the relationship between words and larger concepts (conceptual domains). One component of our approach involves not only the study of the Hebrew word meaning, but also of our own assumptions about word meaning in modern languages. Because the researcher necessarily starts with their own cultural assumptions (in our case, those of Western-trained scholars), this part of the analysis should be done afresh for every culture.

For a detailed description of our method, see the Lexical Semantics Creator Guidelines.

About Phrase-level Semantics

The Phrase-level Semantics layer analyses the meaning of syntactic units which are larger than the level of the word and smaller than the level of the clause. Specifically, this layer analyses the meaning of prepositional phrases (e.g., לְאִישׁ), construct phrases (e.g., אִישׁ אֱלֹהִים), phrases formed by a coordinating waw conjunction (e.g., אִישׁ וְאִשָּׁה) and noun phrases which consist of a noun plus a determiner (e.g., הָאִישׁ) or a quantifier (e.g., כֹּל אִישׁ).

For a detailed description of our method, see the Phrase-level Semantics Creator Guidelines.

About Verbal Semantics

This sub-layer focuses on the relationship between verbs, time and modality. These are important categories for interpretation and translation, and how one analyses a verb can have a significant effect on how it is rendered. This sub-layer has been through several iterations, as it strives to accomplish two things: (1) Transparency for the native Hebrew structures, and (2) Transparency for the interpretation necessary to translate the verbal semantics into other languages.

For a detailed description of our method, see the Verbal Semantics Creator Guidelines.

Semantics Visuals for Psalm 37

Lexical and Phrase-level Semantics Diagram

For legend, click "Expand" to the right

	Prepositional phrase	Construct chain	Construct chain within a prepositional phrase	Phrase-level waw	Article and כֹּל
Diagram Shading
Definition	- A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition plus its object. The phrase usually modifies the clause or another constituent in the clause.	- A construct chain, also called a 'genitive phrase', is a grammatical encoding of the relationship 'A of B,' in which A is a phonologically modified noun (in the construct state), and B is a phonologically unmodified noun (the absolute state).	- Some construct chains occur within prepositional phrases	- A waw conjunction can join units of all sizes. Phrase level waw join units at the word or phrase level (i.e., below the level of the clause).	- Definite articles tell you something about the identifiability or inclusiveness about the word it is attached to - כֹּל is a quantifier that tells you about the scope of a word it is attached to

See our growing collection of Venn Diagrams, not only for Psalm 37, but for all of the psalms.
See SDBH on Psalm 37.

v. 1

v. 1a: The verb תִּתְחַר opens the psalm and occurs a total of three times in the psalm (vv. 1, 7-8). Otherwise, the verb is rare, occurring only in Prov 24:19 (אַל־תִּתְחַ֥ר בַּמְּרֵעִ֑ים) and in the margin of a manuscript of Ben Sira (38:16—ואל תתחר בגויתם). Therefore, this verb is part of what makes Ps 37 unique, and understanding its meaning is important to understanding the meaning of the psalm.
- Modern English translations use a wide variety of terms to translate תִּתְחַר: "fret" (NIV, ESV, NET), "worry" (NLT, cf. GNT), "get upset" (NASB), "be annoyed" (CEV), "be vexed" (NJPS), "strive to outdo" (NEB), "get heated" (NJB).
- The ancient versions show a similar variety: "make jealous" (LXX παραζήλου, which Origen understood as meaning "make jealous"), "irritate" (Theodotion παρερεθίζου), "be quarrelsome" (Quinta ἐρεθίζου), "fight" (Aquila διαμάχου), "be contentious" (Symmachus φιλονείκει, lit: "be fond of victory"), "contend" (Jerome contendere), "envy" (Peshitta ܬܚܣܡ), "be impatient" (Targum תגרג, cf. Stec 2004, 79).
- The basic meaning of the verb in the qal stem is "to burn" (BDB, DCH, TDOT) >> "to be angry" (BDB, HALOT, DCH). The hithpael (תִּתְחַר), then, probably means, literally, "cause yourself to become hot" (cf. BDB, "heat oneself in vexation") >> cause yourself to become angry. As Boyd writes, "with stative intransitive verbs, the Hithpael is connected with the factitive Piel. With the Piel, the referent represented by [subject] places the referent represented by the [direct object] into a state; whereas, with the Hithpael, the referent/[subject] places himself into a state" (Boyd 2017, 103; but see TDOT which suggests that the hithpael of this verb is intensive: "fly into a passion").
- In Ps 37, the verb is associated with anger. It is parallel to "anger" (אַף) and "wrath" (חֵמָה) in v. 8, and in v. 1 it is parallel to "envy" (קַנֵּא), which is elsewhere associated with anger (e.g., Ps 79:5; Prov 27:4). In v. 7, its opposite is patient and calm waiting for YHWH (דּ֤וֹם׀ לַיהוָה֮ וְהִתְח֪וֹלֵ֫ל ל֥וֹ).
- The attitude described by this verb is clearly expressed in other passages of the Bible. Someone who says the following is someone who has "worked themselves up" (הִתְחַר) in the sense described in Ps 37:
  - "It is futile to serve God. What do we gain by carrying out his requirements and going about like mourners before the Lord Almighty? But now we call the arrogant blessed. Certainly evildoers prosper, and even when they put God to the test, they get away with it." (Mal 3:14-15, NIV)
  - "Take a good look. This is what the wicked are like, those who always have it so easy and get richer and richer. I concluded, 'Surely in vain I have kept my motives pure and maintained a pure lifestyle. I suffer all day long, and am punished every morning.'" (Ps 73:12-14, NET)
- SDBH accurately defines the word as "process by which humans or deities experience extreme displeasure" and glosses it as "become angry." "Get upset" (which refers not just to anger, but also to worry and to displeasure more generally) would also be an appropriate gloss for this definition (so NASB: "get upset").
v. 1b: The verb רעע in the hiphil means “to treat badly, make difficulties for someone, cause injury” (TLOT). In Ps 37, the participle מרעים is partially synonymous with עשי עולה (v. 1), רשׁעים (vv. 9, 12, 14, etc.), and so it has a clear moral dimension: "[those who] act wickedly" (SDBH). The מרעים rebel against YHWH's authority (cf. v. 38) and are thus considered "YHWH's enemies" (v. 20).

v. 2

v. 2a: The adverb מְהֵרָה probably refers to the imminence of the wicked's destruction as well as to the speed with which it will take place. It will happen "soon" (NIV, NLT, ESV, CEV, GNT), and when it does, it will happen "quickly" (NET). Cf. v. 10.
v. 2b: The word יֶרֶק is a substantive in Hebrew but must be translated as an adjective+noun in English “green thing” or “something green” (cf. HALOT: "greenery"). The noun can refer to any green appendage of a plant (e.g., Exod 10:15).

v. 3

v. 3b: There are five different ways of understanding the meaning of רעה אמונה.
- Option 1: root רעה I, transitive, "graze on faithfulness >> be busy with faithfulness" (cf. HALOT, Gesenius 2013, 1254), on analogy with Prov 15:14—"the fool feeds on trash" (NLT; Hebrew: וּפִי כְסִילִים יִרְעֶה אִוֶּלֶת). So Targum: "be occupied with (עסוק) faithfulness" (Stec 2004, 79).
- Option 2: root רעה I, transitive, "graze on faithfulness >> graze on a reliable food supply" (see Kselman 1997, 252). The following verb ענג in v. 4 is also associated with food (cf. Isa 55:2; 58:14; 66:11).
- Option 3: root רעה I, transitive, "shepherd faithfulness >> guard faithfulness", i.e., "maintain your integrity" (NET, cf. NJPS: "remain loyal")
- Option 4: root רעה I, intransitive, "graze securely >> "Live securely" (CSB; so Baethgen 1904, 104; Hossfeld and Zenger 1993, 234). Cf. Symmachus (also Jerome): ποιμαίνου διηνεκῶς. The image is similar to that in Isa 14:30: "The poorest of the poor will find pasture (וְרָעוּ), and the needy will lie down in safety" (NIV; cf. Ezek 34:14, 18f; Isa 33:6). The syntax is similar to Isa 30:23, where intransitive רעה is modified by an adverbial accusative—יִרְעֶ֥ה מִקְנֶ֛יךָ בַּיּ֥וֹם הַה֖וּא כַּ֥ר נִרְחָֽב, "In that day your cattle will graze in broad meadows" (NIV). According to this view, אמונה does not refer to the virtue of "faithfulness" but to "security" or "stability" (cf. Isa 33:6—"He is your constant source of stability [אֱמוּנַ֣ת עִתֶּ֔יךָ]," NET) and functions as an adverbial accusative (CSB: "securely").
- Option 5: root רעה II, transitive, "befriend faithfulness" (ESV). Cf. SDBH: "literally: to associate (with an event); hence: = process by which humans undergo a certain condition"; cf. BDB: "cherish faithfulness".
In the context, the imperatives in vv. 3b-4 are probably not moral exhortations to righteous living, but promises for the person who trusts in YHWH (cf. Baethgen 1904, 104). In other words, only the imperatives in the first line (v. 3a) function as a directives ("trust in YHWH and do good!"). The following imperatives, beginning with "dwell in the land," function (as imperatives sometimes do) "to express a distinct assurance... or promise" (GKC 110c; cf. JM114p; IBHS 34.4c). Cf. the parallel verse, Ps 37:27 ס֣וּר מֵ֭רָע וַעֲשֵׂה־ט֗וֹב וּשְׁכֹ֥ן לְעוֹלָֽם = "turn from evil and do good, and (you will) dwell forever." If this analysis is correct and רעה אמונה is not a moral exhortation to faithfulness, then options 1, 3, and 5 are less likely, and options 2 and 4 are more likely. Between these two options, option 4 has clearer semantic and syntactic parallels.

v. 4

מִשְׁאֲלֹת לִבֶּֽ (your heart's requests >> your heart's desires): Most translations have "desires of your heart" (NIV, ESV, cf. NLT, CEV, GNT). If the "requests of the heart" are unarticulated, then "desires" is a good translation. Alternatively, the phrase "requests of the heart" could instead refer to verbal requests which originate in the heart (cf. NET: "your prayers"). In Ps 19, the phrase "meditation of my heart" (הֶגְיוֹן לִבִּי), juxtaposed with the phrase "words of my mouth," probably refers to unvoiced thoughts. Similarly, in Ps 37:4, the reference is probably to unvoiced requests, i.e., (deep-seated) desires.

vv. 5-6

v. 5a: The word translated commit (so ESV, NIV, NLT, NET) is, literally "to roll away, to God: a need, distress" (HALOT). SDBH defines it as an "action by which humans show their confidence in a deity by putting difficult matters in that deity's hands, ◄ like a heavy stone is rolled on to someone else who is more able to carry it" (cf. Ps 22:9 [גֹּ֣ל אֶל־יְהוָ֣ה]; Prov 16:3 [גֹּ֣ל אֶל־יְהוָ֣ה מַעֲשֶׂ֑יךָ]). The NJPS translation does a good job bringing out the sense of the clause: "Leave all to the LORD" (NJPS).
v. 5b: The verb עשה is sometimes intransitive, meaning "act with effect, especially of [YHWH]" (BDB; e.g., Pss 22:32; 52:11; see BDB for more examples). Cf. ESV: "he will act"; NET: "he will act on your behalf."
v. 6a: "Bring out like the light" >> make known. "Your righteousness will be visible to everyone; in the same way that everyone can see the light, so everyone will be able to see that you are in the right and that your deeds are just." Cf. CEV: "Then it will be as clear as the noonday sun that you were right."
v. 6b: The word משפט refers to behavior that conforms to YHWH’s law (cf. SDBH: “practices that conform to the laws of God”). Everyone will be able to see that this person is in the right and their deeds are just (in conformity with God’s law).
The article in כַּֽ(הַ)צָּהֳרָֽיִם (midday) indicates identifiability - specific referent. In other words, there is only one mid-point of each day; similarly in English: "the middle of the day". Alternatively, inclusiveness-class.

v. 7

The verb be silent (דמם) is associated with hope (cf. Ps 62:6).
The verb הִתְחוֹלֵל elsewhere means "to writhe with fear" (HALOT, cf. Jer 23:19; Job 15:20; for the possible combination of fear and silence, cf. Ps 4:5—רִגְזוּ... וְדֹמּוּ), but this is not appropriate to the context. Thus, virtually all translation agree that the verb הִתְחוֹלֵל here means to "wait longingly" (BDB, DCH; cf. NIV, NLT, ESV, GNT, NET, NJPS, NEB, LUT, HFA, NGÜ, ELB, EÜ, GNB, ZÜR). So also the Targum (ואוריך ליה) and Aquila (ἀποκαραδόκει). Cf. the similar phrase וּתְח֥וֹלֵֽל לֽוֹ in Job 35:14—"you must wait for him" (NIV, cf. NLT, ESV, NET, etc.). The verbal root חיל/חול in Ps 37:7 and Job 35:14 is probably different from the root חיל/חול ("to writhe") and is instead related to the root יחל ("to wait", so Briggs 1906, 333; cf. DCH, SDBH).
The expression עשות מזמות refers to carrying out plans (cf. Jer 11:15), not to forming them. The latter is expressed with the verb חשׁב, e.g., בִּמְזִמֹּ֖ות ז֣וּ חָשָֽׁבוּ (Ps 10:2).
In the phrase בְּמַצְלִ֣יחַ דַּרְכּ֑וֹ בְּ֝אִ֗ישׁ עֹשֶׂ֥ה מְזִמּֽוֹת, the second member specifies a characteristic action of the first member ("...at someone who makes his way successful, at a person carrying out schemes").

v. 8

v. 9

The verb ירשׁ (qal) occurs five times in Psalm 37 (vv. 9b, 11a, 22a, 29a, 34b). SDBH gives the gloss "take possession." Some English translations simply have "possess" (e.g., NLT, NET, GNT) and others have "inherit" (e.g., NIV, ESV, NJPS, CSB). Similarly, most German translations have "besitzen" (="possess") (HFA, ELB, EÜ, GNB, ZÜR), but at least one has "erben" (="inherit") (LUT). Despite the popularity of the gloss "inherit" for the verb ירשׁ (qal), this meaning is relatively rare in the Bible and appears to be late. As Lohfink writes, "Only in very late passages does this usage come to refer also to inheritance of the family’s wealth by whoever takes over family leadership when the father dies. Earlier contexts always involve 'acquisition' of something additional, without stipulating the specific mode of acquisition, usually purchase" (TDOT). This developed meaning of the verb ("inherit") might reflect Aramaic influence (cf. Aramaic ירת). In Ps 37, the verb is more accurately glossed as "possess" rather than "inherit." The word "possess," like the verb ירשׁ, can communicate both the initial act of taking possession (cf. 1 Kgs 21:15) or the continued act of possessing (cf. Josh 1:15b; 1 Chron 28:8). In Ps 37, both senses of "possess" are in view to some extent. On the one hand, the righteous are already living in the land, and many of them are probably land-owners. Thus, the psalm affirms that, whereas the wicked will lose possession of the land, the righteous will continue to possess it. On the other hand, the fact that the wicked lose possession of the land implies the righteous will gain land, i.e., they will "take possession." "The wicked, who have taken more than their fair share, will be destroyed in the end, leaving the meek in sole possession" (Kidner 1973, 150). Cf. Isa 57:13; 60:21; 65:9. The following Venn diagram explores some of the similarities and differences between the English word "inherit" and the Hebrew verb ירשׁ (qal).

The land (אֶרֶץ) is a key theme in this psalm (cf. vv. 9, 11, 22, 29, 34). The word refers to the land of Canaan which YHWH promised to give to Abraham and his descendants (see Gen 12:7; 15:7, 18-21). In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, YHWH fulfilled his promise (see Josh 21:43-45; Jdg 2:6; 1 Kgs 8:56), but Israel's continued possession of the land depended on their faithfulness to the covenant (see Lev 26; Deut 28; cf. Ezra 9:12; 1 Chron 28:8). In Ps 37, it is only the righteous who will possess the land in the end (cf. Isa 60:21), perhaps hinting at the idea that only the righteous—i.e., those who trust in YHWH and practice covenant faithfulness—are the true descendants of Abraham to whom the land has been given. On the land theme throughout the Bible, see Martin 2013. The following Venn diagram explores some of the similarities and differences between the English word "land" and the Hebrew word אֶרֶץ.

The verb קוה ("hope") refers to a "state in which humans are confident that their longing will be fulfilled" (SDBH). It is synonymous with התחולל (from the root חול/חיל, a by-form of יחל) in v. 7. TDOT compares the two verbs as follows: "It is difficult to distinguish semantically the various verbs for hoping and waiting. As far as the two most frequent verbs are concerned, one can perhaps best follow Westermann’s suggestion that yḥl 'in reference to God retains the entire range of meaning that it has in nontheological usage,' whereas qwh is much more influenced by its theological use. Similar to ḥkh and śbr, yḥl would then emphasize more the aspect of 'waiting' and qwh more the aspect of 'hoping.' One consideration, however, is that these verbs and their derivatives appear not only in similar contexts but generally also in late (exilic-postexilic) texts, suggesting that they have lost much of their original semantic content and have become increasingly synonymous such that the use of the one or the other depends more on stylistic than semantic considerations."

v. 10

HALOT: "עוֹד מְעַט just a little time Ex 17:4 Is 10:25 Jr 51:33 Hos 1:4 Ps 37:10"

v. 11

The humble (ענוים) here refer to those who quietly suffered while the wicked prospered.

v. 12

v. 13

v. 14

The clause translated they have drawn their swords is literally "they have opened their swords." In Hebrew, a sword is like a mouth that devours (e.g., Deut 23:42—וְחַרְבִּ֖י תֹּאכַ֣ל בָּשָׂ֑ר). Just as a person opens their mouth to prepare to eat, so a warrior "opens" his sword to prepare to slay someone. English uses the verb "to draw" (so most English translations; so LXX: ῥομφαίαν ἐσπάσαντο; cf. BDB, DCH; cf. Ezek 21:33—חֶ֣רֶב חֶ֤רֶב פְּתוּחָה֙ לְטֶ֣בַח מְרוּטָ֔ה).
The clause translated "they have strung their bows" (cf. NLT) is literally "they have stepped on their bows." The reference is not to pulling the string back to fire an arrow but to "the method of bending the unstrung bow enough [using one's foot] to slip the bowstring in place on the end of the bow" (Pritz 2009, 107). See J. A. Emerton, “Treading the Bow,” Vetus Testamentum 53, no. 4 (2003): 465–486.
עָנִי וְאֶבְיוֹן ("person who is afflicted and poor"): Two synonymous words forming a fixed compound.

v. 15

v. 16-17

It’s significant that after the arms of the wicked are broken YHWH “supports” the psalmist, since “supporting” in non-theological usage involves holding oneself up with one’s arms (see e.g., Amos 5:19; see TLOT 2:804).

v. 18

"YHWH knows (יוֹדֵעַ) the days of the blameless (יְמֵי תְמִימִים)." SDBH: "literally: to know; hence: = state in which humans or deities are actively involved in circumstances relating to the life of humans and animals and care for their well-being." If, as SDBH claims, the word "knows" (יוֹדֵעַ) means "care for," then "days of the blameless" is probably figurative for "the life-span >> life of the blameless" (cf. Ps 1:6—כִּֽי־יוֹדֵ֣עַ יְ֭הוָה דֶּ֣רֶךְ צַדִּיקִ֑ים, where דֶּרֶךְ is figurative for "life"; cf. Baethgen 1904, 106—"Die Tage sind Bezeichnung des Lebens..."). The point is that "each day of their lives is known to God and comes within his protective care" (Craigie 1983, 298). "Day by day the LORD takes care of the innocent" (NIV, cf. NET, CEV).

v. 19

"The force of bôš is somewhat in contrast to the primary meaning of the English 'to be ashamed,' in that the English stresses the inner attitude, the state of mind, while the Hebrew means 'to come to shame' and stresses the sense of public disgrace, a physical state" (TWOT).
בְּעֵת רָעָה ("during hard times"): Entity–characteristic. It refers to a period of time which is characterized by trouble, i.e., "hard times" (NLT, NET).

v. 20

Verse 20 contains one of the most difficult exegetical issues in this psalm. It is not clear whether the phrase כִּיקַר כָּרִים in v. 20b refers to "the fat of lambs" (KJV), "the glory of the pastures" (ESV), or "fuel in a furnace" (REB). See The Text, Grammar, and Meaning of Ps 37:20 for an in-depth discussion. In short, the phrase probably refers to "the glory of the pastures" (ESV, cf. Ps 65:14), i.e., "the flowers of the field" (NIV), which, despite their beauty, quickly "come to an end" (אבד, v. 20a). The determining factor for this decision is the surrounding context of agricultural images for the wicked. The agricultural image for the wicked here at the end of the first half of the psalm (vv. 1-20) corresponds to the agricultural image for the wicked at the beginning of the psalm ("like grass," v. 2). Indeed, all of the similes for the wicked in Ps 37 are taken from the agricultural domain (cf. vv. 2, 20, 35). Furthermore, the image of fading flowers fits well with the image of vanishing smoke in the next line (v. 20c). Both flowers and smoke are images of transitoriness (cf. Hos 13:3; Ps 103:15-16). The point of these images is that the end of the wicked will be soon and sudden. This is the point of the verse even if an alternative interpretation is adopted ("fat of lambs" or "burning of ovens"). As Klein writes, "Entscheidend ist jedoch nicht das Bild, sondern die Aussage: Die Bösewichte verschwinden, als wären sie Rauch. Von ihnen bleibt nichts übrig, nicht einmal Asche" (Klein 2018, 68). Although they appear to flourish for the moment, their demise is imminent. And when they are destroyed, there will be no trace of their existence.
SDBH defines כָּלוּ as "literally: to finish; hence: = process by which humans and objects completely disappear from existence." The literal gloss "be finished" works well in the context, since the word (emphatically repeated) also signals that the first half of the psalm is finished (cf. כָּלוּ in Ps 72:20; cf. the use of אבד "come to an end" as the last word of Ps 1).
There is a textual problem in v. 20c regarding the phrase translated like smoke (*כֶעָשָׁן*). Some translations read the text as כֶעָשָׁן ("like smoke"), while other translations read the text as בֶעָשָׁן ("in smoke"). See Grammar notes for a detailed discussion. The beth preposition of the MT is best analyzed as a beth essentiae: "they will vanish as smoke."

vv. 21-22

v. 21: חוֹנֵן וְנוֹתֵֽן ("giving generously"): Two synonymous words forming a fixed compound. The two verbs communicate a single idea ("lending generously"). The same expression is used in Ps 112:5—חוֹנֵן וּמַלְוֶה. Cf. NIV "give generously."

v. 23

The semantic relationship between the b-line and the a-line is difficult to understand. Consequently, the meaning of the words in the b-line are also hard to understand (וְדַרְכּ֥וֹ יֶחְפָּֽץ). There are at least three options. The first two options see the b-line as semantically subordinate to the a-line, qualifying or restricting the meaning of the a-line in some way. The third option sees an opposite relationship: the b-line is semantically subordinate to the a-line.
- Option 1. "...when he [=a person] delights in YHWH's prescribed way of life" (cf. NIV), i.e., YHWH only establishes a person's steps if that person delights in YHWH's prescribed way of life.
- Option 2. "...when he [=YHWH] delights in a person's way of life" (cf. NJPS, NET, CEV, GNT), i.e., YHWH only establishes a person's steps if he delights in that person's way of life (cf. Theodore of Mopsuestia ed. 2006, 430-1; Baethgen 1904, 106-107; Hupfeld 298; Hossfeld and Zenger 1993, 233). Calvin: "For I consider the copula and, in the second clause of the verse, to be used instead of the causal particle because, and resolve the whole verse in this way: Because the way of the godly is acceptable to God, he directs their footsteps to a happy issue..."
- Option 3. "When (ὅταν) the ways of a person are straightened by the Lord, then (τότε) he will want his road" (Origen, trans. Trigg 2020, 127; Greek text from Origen, ed. 2015, 162). Calvin mentions this interpretation, though he does not adopt it: "Some join together these two things, first, that the footsteps of the godly are ordered by the grace of God, since men do not in their own strength follow what is just and right, but only in so far as the Spirit of God directs them; and hence the second follows, namely, that God favors and approves what is his own."

In this verse, it is the person, not YHWH, who is on a (metaphorical) journey through life (cf. v. 23a—"the steps of a person"). Thus, the 3ms suffix on דַּרְכּוֹ ("his way") probably refers to the person (cf. Ruiz 2009, 201). Consequently, the subject of "delights" (יֶחְפָּץ) is probably YHWH. Option 1 is, therefore, unlikely, and the choice remains between Options 2-3. The decision between these two options depends on what it means for "footsteps" to be "established" (כוננו). SDBH claims that it means for one's life to become "faithful and in line with the will of God" (so LXX κατευθύνεται; cf. Pss 51:12; 78:8, 37; 119:5, 133). According to this interpretation of the phrase, Option 2 would not make sense, and Option 3 would be the most likely option. The sequence of thought would be as follows: YHWH brings a person's way of life in line with his own will --> (as a result) the person keeps YHWH's commands (cf. Ps 119:5) --> (as a result) YHWH takes pleasure in that person's way of life. This interpretation fits well in the flow of the text: the previous strophe contrasted the behavior of the righteous and the wicked (vv. 21-22), and now v. 23 explains how the righteous have become righteous. This interpretation also accounts for the verb forms (qatal --> yiqtol). On the other hand, the establishment of one's footsteps can also refer to the granting of security (cf. Ps 40:3, which is the only other instance of כונן [poel/poal] with reference to footsteps [cf. Ps 7:10]). Calvin: "As God sees that the faithful act conscientiously, and do not turn aside from the way which he has appointed, he blesses their efforts. And, certainly, since the prophet speaks generally — and yet it is certain that the faithful only are here spoken of — the second clause must necessarily be considered as spoken by way of exposition. Accordingly, the term way denotes their manner and course of living; as if he had said, that the godly have no other object in view but to frame their lives agreeably to the will of God, and to obey what he commands. The term footsteps I consider as referring to external success." The thought is similar to Prov 16:3, which has already been echoed earlier in the psalm (v. 5).

The preposition מִ in מֵ-יְהוָה is a מִ of source (from YHWH >> by YHWH). Confer GKC §121f. "The efficient cause (or personal agent) is, as a rule, attached to the passive by לְ... less commonly by מִן (called מִן of origin=coming from), e.g. Gen 9:11... Ps 37:23..." For agentive מן in passive constructions, see also 2 Kgs 25.30/Jer. 52.34; Job 24.1 and 1QIsaª of Isa. 9.18 (מעברת יהוה צבאות נתעם הארץ), though the MT has בְּעֶבְרַ֛ת יְהוָ֥ה צְבָא֖וֹת נֶעְתַּ֣ם אָ֑רֶץ (which shows an overlap with instrumental בְּ).

v. 24

v. 24a: "When he falls, he will not be thrown down," i.e., the fall will not be a devastating crash from which he does not recover (cf. LXX: "Should he fall [ὅταν πέσῃ], he will not crash [οὐ καταραχθήσεται]" [NETS]; cf. Origen, trans. Trigg 2020, 127, who compares it to a wrestler who falls in one round but emerges victorious in the end; Jerome iuxta Hebr.: cum ceciderit non adlidetur; so most modern translations, which they express in various ways: "fall... cast headlong" [ESV]; "trips... fall headlong" [NET]; "stumble... fall" [NIV, NLT, CEV]; "fall... stay down" [GNT]; cf. Radak: לא ישלך לארץ). Craigie expresses the idea well: "if he falls, he won't fall flat on his face" (1983, 295). As he writes, "The righteous retain their humanity and still may fall in the walk of life; the divine hand ensures that the fall will not be so grave as to prohibit them from ever rising again and continuing to walk life's road" (1983, 298). The thought is similar to Ps 34:20—"The hardships of the righteous are many, but YHWH rescues him from all of them" (CBC).
Another option: "When he falls, he will not be thrown off the path" (cf. Jer 22:28, where הוטל refers to being thrown out of the land; cf. hiphil in Jer 16:13; 22:26).
Another option: The subject of יִפּוֹל could also be impersonal: "when it falls", i.e., "When disaster falls, he will not be thrown down." Cf. Targum: "Though he may fall ill (ארום יפול מרע, lit.: "though sickness may fall"), he will not die (לא ימות)" (Stec 2004, 81; cf. DCH).

v. 25

The singular זֶרַע is often used to refer to one's descendants collectively (e.g., Gen 3:15; 15:3; 1 Sam 2:20; Jer 33:26; Job 21:28), so a plural gloss ("children") is appropriate.

v. 26

To become a blessing (לִבְרָכָה) probably means, in this context, to become a standard which is invoked in the verbal blessing of others. Cf. Zech 8:13—"And just as you were a curse among the nations, O House of Judah and House of Israel, so, when I vindicate you, you shall become a blessing" (NJPS). The same phrase (היה לברכה) occurs in Gen 12:3, which Wenham explains as follows: "In other words, people will say, 'May God make me as blessed as Abram'" (1987, 276).

vv. 27-28A*

The word justice (מִשְׁפָּט) refers to "practices that conform to the laws of God" (SDBH).
Verse 28BA contains the most significant textual issue in the psalm. The ESV, representative of most modern translations, follows the reading of the Masoretic Text (לְעוֹלָ֣ם נִשְׁמָ֑רוּ), which it translates, "They are preserved forever." Other translations, however, choose to emend the text. The NJB, for example, adopts as its Hebrew text עַוָּלִים לְעוֹלָם נִשְׁמָדוּ, which it translates as "Evil-doers will perish eternally." Other translations appear to adopt a slightly different Hebrew text: עַוָּלִים נִשְׁמָדוּ (or perhaps עַוָּלִים נִצְמָתוּ): "Wrongdoers will be destroyed" (cf. BDS, DHH94I). See The Text of Ps 37:28 for an in-depth discussion of the issue. In short, there are good reasons to think that the earliest reading of Ps 37:28c is wrong-doers are exterminated (עַוָּלִם נִשְׁמָדוּ). In the first place, this reading appears to be supported by the oldest witnesses (4Q171 and LXX). It also explains how the other readings came about. The development of the text might have looked something like the following: (1) The original text read עַוָּלִם נִשְׁמָדוּ (so probably LXX and 4Q171), (2) Then the ד in נִשְׁמָדוּ was confused for a ר, and so the text became נִשְׁמָרוּ, and (3) because it makes no sense for עַוָּלִם to be the subject of נִשְׁמָרוּ, the word עַוָּלִם came to be vocalized/understood as עוֹלָם. Finally, (4) because adverbial לְעוֹלָם is more common than adverbial עוֹלָם, the text was changed to לְעוֹלָם נִשְׁמָרוּ. By contrast, it is difficult to explain how the reading לְעוֹלָם נִשְׁמָרוּ would have led to the reading עַוָּלִם נִשְׁמָדוּ. The second reason for adopting עַוָּלִם נִשְׁמָדוּ as the earlier reading is that it fits well in the context. It restores the otherwise disturbed acrostic structure by having a word that begins with ע at the beginning of the line. It also fits well with the parallel line in v. 28d ("the offspring of the wicked are cut off" (וְזֶ֖רַע רְשָׁעִ֣ים נִכְרָֽת). This pair of lines about the wicked (v. 28cd) also matches the pair of lines about the righteous in the following verse (v. 29).

v. 30*

The abstract nouns wisdom and justice are metonymic for "that which is wise" and "that which is just" (cf. NIV: "what is just"). Words that are just are words that conform to YHWH's law, i.e., they are characterized by truth, honesty and love for one's neighbor.

v. 31*

v. 28B*

v. 29*

v. 32

v. 33

In this context, the hiphil verb יַרְשִׁיעֶנּוּ is probably not declarative ("declare guilty, condemn") but causative—"cause to be condemned" (HALOT) or "allow to be condemned" (NET, cf. NIV, NLT, ESV, GNT, NJPS), since YHWH is not the judge in this case, but rather the one protecting the righteous person who has entered into judgment. Alternatively, it could mean that "if men sit in judgment upon the righteous, yet God, the supreme Judge, does not condemn him, but acquits him" (Delitzsch 1996, 286).

v. 34

vv. 35-36

v. 36: The meaning of עבר in v. 36a depends on whether we read אעבר ("I passed by") or יעבר ("he vanished"). See note on Grammar.

If we adopt the reading אעבר, then it probably means "to pass by (and see) [something]." E.g., Prov 24:30-31—"I passed by (עָבַרְתִּי) the field of a sluggard... and behold (וְהִנֵּה), it was all overgrown with thorns..." (ESV; cf. Ezek 37:2). In Ps 37, the psalmist's use of הִנֵּה invites the addressee to see the surprising situation for himself. Cf. BHRG §40.22.4.1(2): "וְהִנֵּה is used by a narrator (sometimes a speaker) to put the addressee in the perspective of the observing character... Typically, one or another type of movement and/or change of scene is involved so that the the observers are confronted with a new situation which is surprising to them."

v. 37

v. 37: The verb שׁמר can sometimes mean "watch" or "pay attention to" (e.g., 1 Sam 1:12; Isa 42:20) (cf. HALOT, "to keep > to watch, observe").
v. 37-38: The precise meaning of the word אַחֲרִית is difficult to determine in this context. As Seebass writes, "it cannot be determined with certainty whether it is better to translate it by 'future' or 'posterity' in Ps. 37:37; and even more perplexing is the use of אַחֲרִית in v. 38 (future, posterity, remnant?)" (TDOT; cf. LXX ἐγκατάλειμμα ["remnant"]). The NLT translates the words as "a wonderful future... future" (cf. Jer 29:11; Prov 23:18) while the GNT translates them both as "descendants" (cf. Jer 31:17; Ps 109:13, so HALOT, BDB, DCH). However we translate the words here, both "wonderful future" and "descendants" are probably in view. Indeed, in the ancient Israelite worldview, a wonderful future entails descendants.

v. 38

The adverb יחדו could indicate inclusivity (LXX: "together" [NETS, ἐπὶ τὸ αὐτό]; NIV: "all sinners") or degree (GNT: "completely," NET: "totally", so DCH: transgressors shall be utterly destroyed; cf. Ps 19:10). The use of the verb שׁמד ("wipe out completely, exterminate") and the emphatic assertion of the b-line that even their offspring will be destroyed suggests that יחדו indicates degree: "utterly" or "completely" (see DCH).

vv. 39-40

v. 39: In the phrase מֵיְהוָ֑ה מָֽ֝עוּזָּ֗ם בְּעֵ֣ת צָרָֽה׃ ("...from YHWH, their fortress during times of trouble"), "the second member designates the role/capacity of the first member" (BHRG §29.3).

Verbal Semantics Chart

For legend, click "Expand" to the right

	Tense	Aspect	Reference point movement	Modality
Definition	A situation's location in time	Internal temporal constituency of a situation as portrayed	Whether or not the expected reference point in the discourse is updated after the situation.	Distinguishing between indicative, volitional and other forms of modality, as determined by morphology; word order; particles; context
Options	Relative: a situation's location in time relative to a reference point Absolute: a situation's location in time relative to the moment of speech	Continuous Habitual/iterative Stative	Expected movement: usually perfective No expected movement: usually imperfective	indicative jussive imperative cohortative wish purpose/result past (conditional) possible probable interrogative
Symbol

For steps to determine relative tense and reference point movement click "Expand" to the right:

				Do we expect reference point to move?
After reference point (Posterior)
	Imperative	What next?	Posterior (relative future)	Yes	⇐
	Yiqtol	What next? What now?	Posterior (relative future Simultaneous (relative imperfective present)	Yes	⇐
	Weqatal			Yes	⇐
	Weyiqtol			No	⇍
	Wayyiqtol			No	⇍
At reference point (Simultaneous)
	Yiqtol	What now?	Simultaneous (relative imperfective present)	No	⇍
	Participle
	Weyiqtol
	Infinitive
Before reference point (Anterior)
	Qatal	What next? What now?	Anterior (relative past) Simultaneous (relative imperfect present)	Yes	⇐
	Wayyiqtol	What next? What now?		No	⇍

Bibliography

Baethgen, Friedrich. 1904. Die Psalmen. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht.

Boyd, Stephen W. 2017. “The Binyanim (Verbal Stems).” In Where Shall Wisdom Be Found? A Grammatical Tribute to Professor Stephen A. Kaufman, edited by Hélène M. Dallaire, Benjamin J. Noonan, and Jennifer E. Noonan, 85–125. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.

Calvin, John. Commentary on the Book of Psalms. Translated by James Anderson. Grand Rapids: Christian Classics Ethereal Library.

Craigie, Peter C. 1983. Psalms 1–50. WBC 19. Waco, TX: Word.

Emerton, J. A. 2003. “Treading the Bow.” Vetus Testamentum 53 (4): 465–86.

Hossfeld, Frank-Lothar, and Erich Zenger. 2011. Psalms 3: A Commentary on Psalms 101-150. Edited by Klaus Baltzer. Translated by Linda M. Maloney. Hermeneia. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress.

Hupfeld, Hermann. 1868. Die Psalmen. Vol. 2. Gotha: Friedrich Andreas Perthes.

Keil and Delitzsch 1996. Commentary on the Old Testament. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.

Klein, Peter. 2018. “Kümmere dich nicht um eie Bösen! Vertraue auf Gott und geh deinen Weg! Eine synchrone Textbetrachtung von Psalm 37.” Sacra Scripta 16 (1): 48–82.

Kselman, John A. 1997. “Two Notes on Psalm 37.” Biblica 78 (2): 252–54.

Origen. 2015. Die neuen Psalmenhomilien: eine kritische Edition des Codex monacensis graecus 314. Edited by Lorenzo Perrone, Marina Molin Pradel, Emanuela Prinzivalli, and Antonio Cacciari. Origenes Werke 13. Berlin: De Gruyter.

Origen. 2020. Homilies on the Psalms: Codex Monacensis Graecus 314. Translated by Joseph Wilson Trigg. The Fathers of the Church 141. Washington, D.C: The Catholic University of America Press.

Pritz, Ray. 2009. The Works of Their Hands: Man-Made Things in the Bible. UBS Technical Helps. New York: United Bible Societies.

Ruiz, Eleuterio Ramón. 2009. Los pobres tomarán posesión de la tierra: el Salmo 37 y su orientación escatológica. Estella (Navarra): Verbo Divino.

Stec, David M., ed. 2004. The Targum of Psalms. The Aramaic Bible, v. 16. Collegeville, Minn: Liturgical Press.

Theodore of Mopsuestia. 2006. Commentary on Psalms 1-81. Translated by Robert C. Hill. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature.

Psalm 37 Semantics