Psalm 37 Poetics

Psalm Overview

• Grammar
• Semantics
• Story behind the Psalm
• Discourse
• Poetics

About the Poetics Layer

Exploring the Psalms as poetry is crucial for understanding and experiencing the psalms and thus for faithfully translating them into another language. This layer is comprised of two main parts: poetic structure and poetic features. (For more information, click 'Expand' to the right.)

Poetic Structure

In poetic structure, we analyse the structure of the psalm beginning at the most basic level of the structure: the line (also known as the “colon” or “hemistich”). Then, based on the perception of patterned similarities (and on the assumption that the whole psalm is structured hierarchically), we argue for the grouping of lines into verses, verses into strophes, strophes into stanzas, etc. Because patterned similarities might be of various kinds (syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, sonic) the analysis of poetic structure draws on all of the previous layers (especially the Discourse layer).

Poetic Features

In poetic features, we identify and describe the “Top 3 Poetic Features” for each Psalm. Poetic features might include intricate patterns (e.g., chiasms), long range correspondences across the psalm, evocative uses of imagery, sound-plays, allusions to other parts of the Bible, and various other features or combinations of features. For each poetic feature, we describe both the formal aspects of the feature and the poetic effect of the feature. We assume that there is no one-to-one correspondence between a feature’s formal aspects and its effect, and that similar forms might have very different effects depending on their contexts. The effect of a poetic feature is best determined (subjectively) by a thoughtful examination of the feature against the background of the psalm’s overall message and purpose.

Poetics Visuals for Psalm 37

Poetic Structure

Poetic Macro-structure

Notes

• Psalm 37 is an acrostic poem: each strophe (on average, four lines long) begins with a successive letter of the Hebrew alphabet (see Poetic Feature #1). This acrostic device is, by far, the most important device for defining the poem's structure. The acrostic is not, however, the only structuring device in Psalm 37. Like other Hebrew poems, there is a network of patterned repetitions which help to define the poem's hierarchical structure. Although these more subtle structuring devices should not be overplayed against the more-prominent acrostic structure, they should not be dismissed either.
• The poem is structured in two halves: vv. 1-20 // vv. 21-40 (cf. van der Lugt 2006, §37; Weber 2016). The following observations support this claim:
  • Other acrostic poems are divided in half between כ and ל (e.g., Pss 9-10; 34), so there is a built-in expectation that Ps 37 might do the same.
  • The end of the first half is emphatically signaled by the repeated word כָּלוּ, which means, literally, "to be finished." Other poems use similar words for 'finality' to signal the ends of poems, e.g., Ps 1 תֹּאבֵד ("come to an end"); in Jdg 5, the Jael and Sisera stanza (vv. 23-27) ends with the verb שׁדוּד "destroyed." "These closural allusions, in combination with other textual elements, strengthen the closure of the final word or line of these poems by signifying termination" (cf. Grosser 2023, 205-206).
  • The end of the first half is further signaled by an inclusio between v. 20 (kaf strophe) and vv. 1-2 (alef strophe). Both of these strophes compare the wicked (כְּ) to some kind of vegetation—note also the similar sounds between כְּיֶרֶק (v. 2) and כִּיקַר (v. 20) (cf. Alter).
  • Each half of the psalm thus ends with a word that is repeated twice within a very short space: כָּל֖וּ כֶעָשָׁ֣ן כָּֽלוּ (v. 20) // וַֽיְפַ֫לְּטֵ֥ם יְפַלְּטֵ֣ם (v. 40), the only examples of such near repetition in the psalm.
  • Each half is further subdivided into halves, and, therefore, the psalm is divided into quarters: vv. 1-11 // vv. 12-20 // vv. 21-31 // vv. 32-40 (cf. Ewald 1880, 329). The most important structuring device for determining these four sections is the repetition of the word רשׁע preceding by a participle at the beginning of each section (with the exception of the first section): vv. 12-20 (זֹמֵם רָשָׁע); vv. 21-31 (לֹוֶה רשׁע); and vv. 32-40 (צֹופֶה רשׁע) (cf. Delitzsch 1996, 282; Meynet 2014). Each section of the psalm, including the first section (vv. 1-11), thus begins a negative image: the threatening success of the wicked—"do not get upset at those who do evil" (v. 1a); "the wicked plot" (v. 12a); "the wicked lend" (v. 21a); "the wicked watch" (v. 32a). By contrast, each of the four sections ends with a positive image—"the afflicted will possess the land and delight in great prosperity" (v. 11); "the wicked... are finished" (v. 20); "the righteous will possess the land" (v. 29); "[YHWH] will save [the righteous], because they have sought refuge in him" (v. 40).
  • Other scholars have argued that vv. 30-31 (פ strophe) should be grouped with the fourth quarter instead of the third quarter (cf. van der Lugt 2006, §37; Weber 2016). According to this division, the third quarter would be bound by an inclusio ("they will possess the land"—vv. 22, 29), and the end of the third quarter ("they will possess the land" [v. 29]) would correspond to the end of the first quarter ("they will possess the land" [v. 11]), making for a symmetrical structure and giving prominence to the phrase "they will possess the land." However, grouping the פ strophe (vv. 30-31) with the fourth quarter of the psalm disturbs another prominent structuring device: the similar beginnings of quarters 2 ("the wicked plots"), 3 ("the wicked lends"), and 4 ("the wicked watches"). Scholars have been forced, therefore, to choose to follow only one of these two structuring devices, both of which seem like deliberate structuring devices. The choice between the two might not be necessary, however. It is likely that the ayin strophe originally came after the pe strophe, as in Lamentations 2-4 (MT), Lamentations 1 (4QLam), Proverbs 31 (LXX), pre-exilic abecederies featuring the order pe-ayin (cf. First 2014) and Ps 34 (see The Text and Meaning of Ps. 34:18 for details). Rearranging the letters in this way allows us to appreciate both structuring devices simultaneously.
• vv. 1-11. The first quarter of the psalm (vv. 1-11) is bound together by the use of 2nd person singular language. Every strophe within this section (alef–waw) has at least one instance of 2ms language, whether a 2ms verb or a 2ms pronoun. By contrast, the following section (vv. 12-20) contains no instances of 2ms language. Furthermore, some repeated words occur uniquely within this section, including הִתְעַנַּג (vv. 4a, 11b) and תִּתְחַר (vv. 1a, 7b, 8b). The section further divides into two parts (vv. 1-6; vv. 7-11), which are marked by their similar beginnings (אַל־תִּתְחַר, etc., see visual).
• vv. 12-20. The second quarter of the psalm (vv. 12-20) begins with the wicked plotting (זֹמֵ֣ם רָ֭שָׁע) and ends with the complete destruction of the wicked. The two parts of this section (vv. 12-15; vv. 16-20) are, as the two parts in the previous section, marked by their similar beginnings (לַצַּדִּיק, vv. 12, 16).
• vv. 21-31. The third quarter of the psalm (vv. 21-32), like the previous quarter, begins with the wicked taking advantage of others (לֹוֶ֣ה רָ֭שָׁע) and ends with their complete destruction (v. 28b) and with the righteous possessing the land (v. 29). This quarter is bound by an inclusio: a contrast between the righteous and the wicked and a statement that the righteous "will possess the land" (see above on the פ-ע order). Like the previous two quarters, this quarter divides in half (vv. 21-26; vv. 27-29), with each half being defined by an inclusio: vv. 21-26 (rep. of ברך, חנן, לוה); vv. 27-29 (rep. of שכן לעולם/לעד).
• vv. 32-40. The final quarter begins, like the previous two sections, with the wicked person trying to harm the righteous (צוֹפֶ֣ה רָ֭שָׁע) and concludes with the salvation of the righteous. The strophes within this section form a chiasm: a. protection of the righteous (tsade); b. exhortation (qof); c. personal anecdote (resh); b. exhortation (shin); a. salvation of the righteous (taw). The section is also characterized by verbs for "looking": צפה (v. 32); ראה (vv. 34-35, 37), בקשׁ (vv. 32, 36), שׁמר (v. 37).

Line Division

Notes

• The line division above follows the Masoretic accents, i.e., the line divisions correspond to silluq, ole-weyored, athnach, revia (when preceded by a precursor or when replacing athnach) and tsinnor (when preceded by a precursor) (cf. Sanders and de Hoop forthcoming). The only exception is v. 28, where the Masoretic Text is probably corrupt (see The Text of Ps 37:28).
• The line division above also agrees with the line division of the LXX (Rahlfs 1931) with one exception: the LXX divides v. 40bc differently: יְפַלְּטֵ֣ם מֵ֭רְשָׁעִים | וְיוֹשִׁיעֵ֑ם כִּי־חָ֥סוּ בֽוֹ׃ (a division which also attested in the Babylonian ms Berlin Qu 680).
• v. 23. BHS (cf. Kraus 1988, 403) suggests that v. 23 should be divided differently: מֵ֭יְהוָה מִֽצְעֲדֵי־גֶ֥בֶר | כּוֹנָ֗נוּ וְדַרְכּ֥וֹ יֶחְפָּֽץ׃. This alternate division is well balanced (3 words // 3 words), and it finds support in Prov 20:24, where the exact same words מֵיְהוָ֥ה מִצְעֲדֵי־גָ֑בֶר occur as an independent line, followed by וְ֝אָדָ֗ם מַה־יָּבִ֥ין דַּרְכּֽוֹ. But it is not clear what כוננו ודרכו יחפץ would mean; some further emendation of the text would probably be necessary. Duhm, for example, suggests the emendation כּוֹנְנוֹ דַּרְכּוֹ יֶחְפָּץ — "he has established him in whose way he delights," which might find some support in the commentary of 4Q171 (היכינו לבנות לו עדת — "[YHWH] installed him to found the congregation of..." [García-Martínez and Tigchelaar 1997, 344-345]). But it is probably better to follow the text and line division of the MT, which is deeply entrenched in the tradition; the accents, pausal forms, and the Septuagint all agree that כּוֹנָ֗נוּ ends the first line (see also the Babylonian ms Berlin Qu 680, which agrees with MT in its line division).

Poetic Features

1. From A to Z

Feature

Psalm 37 is an acrostic poem: each strophe begins with a successive letter of the Hebrew alphabet.

In addition to this basic acrostic structure, there are other, more subtle ways, in which the poem plays with the alphabetic sequence:

- The first two lines of the poem each begin with the letters אלת—the first letter, middle, and final letters of the alphabet.

- Some of the strophes not only begin with the next letter of the alphabet, they repeat that letter in poetic ways. E.g.,

- Prolonged alliterative sequences:

- כִּיקַ֣ר כָּרִ֑ים כָּל֖וּ כֶעָשָׁ֣ן כָּֽלוּ׃ (v. 20bc)

- רָ֭אִיתִי רָשָׁ֣ע עָרִ֑יץ וּ֝מִתְעָרֶ֗ה כְּאֶזְרָ֥ח רַעֲנָֽן ׃וָאֶעֲבֹר (vv. 35-36)

- see also waw strophe (vv. 10-11)

- Multiple words beginning with the letter to open the strophe:

- בְּטַ֣ח בַּֽ֭יהוָה (v. 3a)

- יוֹדֵ֣עַ יְ֭הוָה יְמֵ֣י (v. 18a)

- מֵ֭יְהוָה מִֽצְעֲדֵי (v. 23a)

-רָ֭אִיתִי רָשָׁ֣ע (v. 35a)

-See also חֶ֤רֶב ׀ פָּֽתְח֣וּ (v. 14a); טוֹב־מְ֭עַט (v. 16a) (v. 16a)

- Repeating the letter at the end of the strophe (inclusio):

- בְּטַ֣ח...לִבֶּֽךָ (vv. 3-4)

- יוֹדֵ֣עַ...יִשְׂבָּֽעוּ (vv. 18-19)

- כִּ֤י...כָּֽלוּ (v. 20)

- ס֣וּר...חֲ֭סִידָיו (vv. 27-28A)

- עַוָּלִים...לָעַ֣ד עָלֶֽיהָ (vv. 28B-29)

Effect

The alphabet is a symbol of completeness (see Gottwald 1954, 23-32; cf. Soll 2001, I.58-59; Watson 2001, 197-199). In an acrostic poem, the poet takes a topic (e.g., Torah [Ps. 119], or the virtuous woman [Prov. 31]) and expounds on it completely (i.e., from every angle necessary to gain a sufficient understanding), so that the reader walks away with a high-resolution image of the topic (i.e., he/she understands it “from A to Z”). In Psalm 37, the topic is How to respond to the success of the wicked.

(Interestingly, the Babylonian Theodicy [c. 1000 BC], which deals with a similar theme, is also an acrostic poem, in which the sequence of stanza-initial letters form a message that serves to identify the author [see COS 1.154]).

2. The wicked is plotting... but not for long

Feature

Psalm 37 consists of four sections (see Poetic Structure).

Each section begins by acknowledging the present reality of the wicked and their attempts to harm the righteous:

- "those who act wickedly... those who do wrong" (v. 1)

- "the wicked is plotting..." (v. 12)

- "the wicked is borrowing..." (v. 21)

- "the wicked is watching..." (v. 32)

The beginnings of the last three sections are especially similar to each other: each begins with a ms participle following by the subject רָשָׁע ("wicked person").

Each section ends with the destruction of the wicked and the salvation of the righteous:

- "...the humble will possess the land" (vv. 9-11)

- "The wicked... are finished... They are finished!" (v. 20)

- "...the righteous will possess the land"" (vv. 28B-29)

- "YHWH rescues them... He will rescue them..." (vv. 39-40)

These endings exhibit a pattern. The first and third endings repeat the phrase יִירְשׁוּ אָרֶץ ("they will possess the land"). The second and fourth endings repeat words in close proximity to one another (the only example of this kind of repetition in the psalm): "finished...finished!" (v. 20); "rescues... rescues" (vv. 39-40). It is also worth noting that each of the last three sections ends with qatal verbs to describe the destruction of the wicked as an event that is as good as done: "they are finished!" (v. 20); "wrongdoers are exterminated!" (v. 28B); "those who rebel are completely exterminated!" (v. 38).

Effect

The four sections of the psalm represent four cycles of the same story: In the present, people act wickedly without immediate consequences, but in the end, the wicked will be completely destroyed and the righteous will possess the land. This story constitutes the heart of the psalm's message, and it means that YHWH's people should wait patiently for him. Things might look bleak in the present, but YHWH will make everything right in the end.

3. Get this!

Feature

(Note: The following feature is based on the article, Michael Lehmann and Nachman Levine, “An Alliterative-Typographical Device in Psalm 37: Divine Destruction of the Wicked, Enacted in Real Time,” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 45, no. 3 (2021): 407–421.)

Verses 34-36 contain a 15-word sequence of words that contain the letter resh. Such a long sequence of resh words is unparalleled in the Psalter. And in at least one of the words (מִתְעָרֶה), the letter resh is a substitute for the expected letter lamed (מִתְעַלֶּה; see The Text and Meaning of Ps 37:35b). The resh sequence comes to an end with the words "and—get this!—he was gone" (v. 36).

One of the most repeated words in Ps 37 is the word "wicked" (רָשָׁע, plural: רְשָׁעִים), which occurs 13 times (vv. 10, 12, 14, 16, 17, 20, 21, 28B, 32, 34, 35, 38, 40). Another word used to refer to the wicked in this psalm is the word מְרֵעִים, which occurs two times (vv. 2, 9). Although there are other words in Ps 37 that refer to the wicked, these are the only words for wicked that contain the letter resh. Thus, the psalm uses 15 resh words to refer to the wicked.

The psalm also uses the divine name (יהוה) a total of 15 times.

The resh sequence in vv. 34-36 has a chiastic structure, based on a combination of semantics, syntax, and sound:

 a. קַוֵּ֤ה אֶל־יְהוָ֨ה ׀ (no resh words)

  b. וּשְׁמֹ֬ר דַּרְכּ֗וֹ (verb with waw)

   c. וִֽ֭ירוֹמִמְךָ (image of height: "exalt")

    d. לָרֶ֣שֶׁת אָ֑רֶץ (sounds: guttural, resh, tsade)

     e. בְּהִכָּרֵ֖ת רְשָׁעִ֣ים ("wicked")

      f. תִּרְאֶֽה ("see")

      f. רָ֭אִיתִי ("see")

     e. רָשָׁ֣ע ("wicked")

     d. עָרִ֑יץ (sounds: guttural, resh, tsade)

   c. וּ֝מִתְעָרֶ֗ה כְּאֶזְרָ֥ח רַעֲנָֽן׃ (image of height: "ascending")

  b. וָאֶעֲבֹר (verb with waw)

 a. וְהִנֵּ֣ה אֵינֶ֑נּוּ וָֽ֝אֲבַקְשֵׁ֗הוּ וְלֹ֣א נִמְצָֽא׃ (no resh words)

Effect

The subtle chiasm in vv. 34-36 encourages us to read these verses as a unit. When we do, we are immediately struck by the sequence of resh words. The letter resh in vv. 34-36, occurring in 15 consecutive words, symbolizes the wicked (רְשָׁעִים / מְרֵעִים), who are referred to 15 times in the psalm with resh words. The preponderance of resh words in vv. 34-36 contributes to a feeling that the presence of the wicked is overwhelming and never-ending. The wicked are like grass (v. 2) that grows up everywhere, and they are like native trees (v. 35) that are resilient and virtually impossible to get rid of. But, just as the resh sequence comes to a sudden and decisive end in v. 36, so the wicked will completely disappear: "and—get this!—he was gone; then I looked for him, and he was not found" (v. 36).

The agent behind the wicked's destruction is not explicitly stated in the psalm. But the fact that YHWH's name appears 15 times, along with the 15 occurrences of the resh words for the wicked, suggests that YHWH is the one who stands in opposition to the wicked, and he is the one who will bring about their ultimate demise.

Repeated Roots

The repeated roots table is intended to identify the roots which are repeated in the psalm.

For legend, click "Expand" to the right

Legend for Repeated Roots

The following words/roots occur five times or more in Psalm 37 (all bolded in the visual above).

• יהוה ("YHWH")—15 times
• רשׁע ("wicked")—14 times
• צדק ("righteous")—10 times
• ארץ ("land")—6 times
• דרך ("pathway")—6 times
• עשׂה ("do")—5 times
• ירשׁ ("inherit")—5 times
• כרת ("destroy")—5 times
• ראה ("see")—5 times

These repeated words/roots give the reader a good idea what the psalm is about.

For more observations regarding repeated roots and their structural significance, see poetic structure.

Bibliography

Alter, Robert. 2019. The Hebrew Bible: The Writings. Vol. 3. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Ewald, Heinrich. 1880. Commentary on the Psalms. Vol. 1. London: Williams and Norgate.

First, M. 2014. "Using the Pe–Ayin Order of the Abecedaries of Ancient Israel to Date the Book of Psalms." Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, 38(4), 471-485.

García Martínez, Florentino, and Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar. 1997. The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition. Vol. 1. Leiden: Brill.

Gottwald, Norman K. 2010. Studies in the Book of Lamentations. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock.

Grosser, Emmylou. 2023. Unparalleled Poetry: A Cognitive Approach to the Free-Rhythm Verse of the Hebrew Bible. New York: Oxford University Press.

Keil and Delitzsch 1996. Commentary on the Old Testament. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.

Kraus, Hans-Joachim. 1988. Psalms 1–59. Minneapolis: Fortress.

Lehmann, Michael, and Nachman Levine. 2021. “An Alliterative-Typographical Device in Psalm 37: Divine Destruction of the Wicked, Enacted in Real Time.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 45 (3): 407–21.

Lugt, Pieter van der. 2006. Cantos and Strophes in Biblical Hebrew Poetry: With Special Reference to the First Book of the Psalter. Vol. 1. Oudtestamentische Studiën 53. Leiden: Brill.

Meynet, Roland. "Le Psaume 37. Fils De Dieu Et Père Des Pauvres.” Gregorianum, 95 (2): 231-254.

Soll, Will. 1992. “Acrostic.” In The Anchor Bible Dictionary, edited by David Noel Freedman, 1:58–60.

Watson, Wilfred G. E. 2001. Classical Hebrew Poetry: A Guide to Its Techniques. T & T Clark. London ; New York: T & T Clark.

Weber, Beat. 2016. Werkbuch Psalmen. 1: Die Psalmen 1 bis 72, zweite aktualisierte Auflage. Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer.