Psalm 18 Discourse
From Psalms: Layer by Layer
About the Discourse Layer
Our Discourse layer includes four analyses: macrosyntax, speech act analysis, emotional analysis, and participant analysis. (For more information, click 'Expand' to the right.)
Macrosyntax
The macrosyntax layer rests on the belief that human communicators desire their addressees to receive a coherent picture of their message and will cooperatively provide clues to lead the addressee into a correct understanding. So, in the case of macrosyntax of the Psalms, the psalmist has explicitly left syntactic clues for the reader regarding the discourse structure of the entire psalm. Here we aim to account for the function of these elements, including the identification of conjunctions which either coordinate or subordinate entire clauses (as the analysis of coordinated individual phrases is carried out at the phrase-level semantics layer), vocatives, other discourse markers, direct speech, and clausal word order.
For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Macrosyntax Creator Guidelines.
Speech Act Analysis
The Speech Act layer presents the text in terms of what it does, following the findings of Speech Act Theory. It builds on the recognition that there is more to communication than the exchange of propositions. Speech act analysis is particularly important when communicating cross-culturally, and lack of understanding can lead to serious misunderstandings, since the ways languages and cultures perform speech acts varies widely.
For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Speech Act Analysis Creator Guidelines.
Emotional Analysis
This layer explores the emotional dimension of the biblical text and seeks to uncover the clues within the text itself that are part of the communicative intent of its author. The goal of this analysis is to chart the basic emotional tone and/or progression of the psalm.
For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Emotional Analysis Creator Guidelines.
Participant Analysis
Participant Analysis focuses on the characters in the psalm and asks, “Who are the main participants (or characters) in this psalm, and what are they saying or doing? It is often helpful for understanding literary structure, speaker identification, etc.
For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Participant Analysis Creator Guidelines.
Discourse Visuals for Psalm 18
Macrosyntax
Notes
- v. 3: For the addition of וּמְנוּסִי מֹשִׁעִי מֵחָמָס תֹּשִׁעֵנִי׃ see grammar note (MT ø).
- v. 5: For the emendation to מִשְׁבְּרֵי see grammar note (MT חֶבְלֵי).
- v. 12: For the emendation to חֶשׁרַת see grammar note (MT חֶשְׁכַת).
- v. 13: For the removal of MT עָבָ֥יו see grammar note.
- v. 14: For the removal of MT בָּרָ֗ד וְגַֽחֲלֵי־אֵֽשׁ׃ see grammar note.
- v. 15: For the removal of MT רָ֝ב see grammar note.
- v. 19: On the emendation to מִשְׁעָן see grammar note (MT לְמִשְׁעָ֣ן).
- v. 30: On the revocalization to אָרִץ see grammar note (MT אָרֻ֣ץ).
- v. 35: On the emendation to נִחַת see grammar note (MT נִחֲתָ֥ה).
- v. 36: On the emendation to עֶזְרָתְךָ see grammar note (MT עַנְוַתְךָ֥).
- v. 43: On the emendation to אֹרַח see grammar note (MT ר֑וּחַ).
- v. 43: On the emendation to אֶרְקָעֵם see grammar note (MT אֲרִיקֵֽם).
- v. 44: On the emendation to עַמִּים see grammar note (MT עָ֥ם).
Word Order
The following analysis is largely based on that of Atkinson forthcoming.
- v. 3: The context, particularly the epithets, already presuppose that God will save the psalmist from something.
- v. 4: The fronted ומן איבי has no discernible motivation from information structure. Rather, it seems to be fronted for poetic effects, namely alliteration with מְהֻלָּל in the previous line. The מהלל is most likely serving as completive focus, specifying the reason why the Psalmist cries out.
- v. 5: The thetic packaging of נַחֲלֵ֖י בְלִיַּ֣עַל יְבַֽעֲתֽוּנִי׃ is signaled by the word order and serves an explanative function, namely, to the circumstances of the event expressed in the main clause. One should not exclude the possibility that the function here is symmetry with the previous line.
- v. 6: The fronted phrase חֶבְלֵ֣י שְׁא֣וֹל serves a poetic function, namely to elicit cohesion with the previous verse by means of symmetry with the previous line.
- v. 7: The fronted phrase בַּצַּר־לִ֤י ׀ acts as a frame setter, describing the time in which the events that follow took place.
- v. 7: וְאֶל־אֱלֹהַ֪י is fronted for poetic binding, by mirroring the word order of the previous clause.
- v. 8: מוֹסְדֵ֣י הָרִ֣ים is more or less synonymous with the הָאָ֗רֶץ of the previous clause. The mirror word orders of the two clauses are thus most likely for the purposes of poetic binding. If analyzed as a focus construction, it would serve an additive function, viz., “The earth trembled, and the mountains also shook”.
- v. 9: The phrase אֵשׁ־מִפִּ֥יו appears fronted here due to the elision of the verb עלה.
- v. 9: גֶּ֝חָלִ֗ים more or less repeats אֵשׁ from the previous line, and is therefore fronted for poetic reasons.
- v. 13: מִנֹּ֗גַהּ נֶ֫גְדּ֥וֹ here is serving as a “hanging topic” (Croft 2022, 332ff). That is, the entity referred to is not a participant in the main event, but the speaker still wants to make it the most salient referent in the clause. This clause appears at the climax of the description of God's surroundings (vv. 12–13), which in this case happens to be the “brightness” (=“fire”, cf. v. 9) before him.
- v. 14: וְ֭עֶלְיוֹן is fronted for poetic binding via symmetry.
- v. 21: כְּבֹ֥ר יָ֝דַ֗י is fronted for poetic binding via symmetry.
- v. 23: וְ֝חֻקֹּתָ֗יו represents a shift in topic. Note that its close synonym in the previous clause (מִשְׁפָּטָ֣יו) was construed as subject.
- v. 26-27: All of the עִם clauses serve to activate new topics in their respective clauses. The final one (עִם־עִ֝קֵּ֗שׁ) is a contrastive topic. They are expressed as oblique arguments, rather than subject arguments (the most prototypical topic) most likely because in each case “the Lord” would also have to have been included in the subject phrase for the desired reciprocal semantics.
- v. 28: The אַתָּה is a topic shift, this time in its prototypical expression as subject. עַם־עָנִ֣י is fronted for contrastive focus. One may assume that God saves “somebody”. The focused constituent provides the answer in relation to a set of possible alternatives. Consequently, וְעֵינַ֖יִם רָמ֣וֹת is a parallel focus construction—since it occupies the same place in the clause—of the same type (contrastive)
- v. 29: כִּֽי־אַ֭תָּה is fronted here for poetic binding. Cf. the repetition with the previous verse. The following thetic construction (אֱלֹהַ֗י יַגִּ֥יהַּ חָשְׁכִּֽי׃) is explanative, describing how God “lights David's lamp” (=protects his dynasty)—by “brightening his darkness” (=military success).
- v. 30: The fronted bet-phrases are restrictive focus. The fact that the Psalmist experiences success in military endeavors is presupposed. Contrary to normal expectations, it is the Lord, rather than his own strength, that he asserts to be the source of his ability.
- v. 31: הָאֵל֮ is clearly extraposed here, as suggested by the resumptive pronoun on דַּ֫רְכּ֥וֹ. The purpose is a shift of topic. The clause תָּמִ֪ים דַּ֫רְכּ֥וֹ is in scalar focus. That God’s way (=his dealings with people) has a positive value is presupposed due to the previous verses that describe his various dealings with people. The Psalmist declares that this way is no less than “perfect”. Surprise towards a scalar property is constituent of exclamations, which is why a few modern translations render this as an exclamation (e.g., GNB “This God-how perfect are his deeds!”)
- v. 34: עַ֥ל בָּ֝מֹתַ֗י most likely has a poetic function, binding it with vv. 33 and 35. In all three verses the A-lines begin with a piel participle. In vv. 33 and 35, the B-lines begin with verbs, whereas the B-line here in v. 34 does not, thereby mirroring the flanking verses.
- v. 36: ועזרתך is fronted as a brief topic shift.
- v. 41: Both וְֽאֹיְבַ֗י and the following וּ֝מְשַׂנְאַ֗י are topic shifts, enumerating items in a list.
- v. 43: The fronting כְּטִ֖יט חוּצ֣וֹת makes for binding within the verse through mirroring the word order of the previous clause.
- v. 44: עַ֖ם לֹא־יָדַ֣עְתִּי is fronted to mark the clause as annuntiative thetic, whereby the Psalmist expresses his certainty of the event (“serving”) by introducing it into the discourse. Note the semi-generic reference of the fronted constituent.
- v. 45: לְשֵׁ֣מַֽע אֹ֭זֶן is fronted for completive/scalar focus. That the nations will obey is presupposed. The list of possible reasons may rank from obvious reasons, to less obvious reasons, hence the scale. A mere rumor is the least likely reason.
- v. 45-46: The phrase בְּנֵי־נֵכָר “sons of a foreigner” is repeated in 45 b and 46a, thus reflecting their poetic functions.
- v. 49: both מִן־קָ֭מַי and מֵאִ֥ישׁ חָ֝מָ֗ס are in a symmetrical position in their clauses.
- v. 50:וּלְשִׁמְךָ֥ forms a chiastic parallelism with יהוה in 50a. The fronting is thus most likely poetically motivated.
Coordination and Subordination
- v. 2: The quotative frame וַיֹּאמַ֡ר indicates the entire rest of the psalm should be boxed and indented as the content of this speech. For visual simplicity, however, we have left the text above without these features.
- v. 8: The waw at the beginning of these verse functions at a discourse-level to connect the events described therein to the “calling” episode in v. 7. Many translations represent this discourse function with sequential “then” (e.g., ESV, NRSV, NLT, NKJV, HCSB; cf. Hupfeld 1885, 369; Craigie 2004, 174).
- v. 8: The כִּי has scope over all of v. 8. In other words, the propositional content of all three clauses would separately be true if followed by the כִּי clause, but otherwise, the reason for the events described therein would not be apparent.
- v. 10: The waw connects sequentially to all of v. 9. So Delitzsch (1996, 160) “Thus enraged and breathing forth His wrath, Jahve bowed the heavens, i.e., caused them to bend towards the earth”.
- v. 16: The initial waw is clearly sequential to the events described in vv. 14–15, cf. ESV “then”.
- v. 20: On wayyiqtol here cohering with what follows, see the note in verbal semantics. The כִּי is most straightforwardly read as having scope over both clauses since their meanings are close, syntax closely bound and illocutions identical (cf. Hupfeld 1855, 380).
- v. 22-23: Both of these verses ground v. 21 (cf. v. 22 in HCSB “Indeed...”). Evidence for this is the fact that דרכי יהוה in v. 22 and משפט in v. 23 are parallel; one may also find this parallelism in Psalm 119:30.
- v. 24: A number of translations reflect an interpretation where ואהי continues the grounds for v. 21 (e.g. “I was also perfect with him...” ASV, cf. NASB95, NKJV). Being “blameless”, however, most naturally follows as a result of keeping God's ways (see Deut. 18:13; cf. Baethgen 1904, 52 “Und so war ich ohne Tadel vor ihm”).
- v. 26-27: The waw in 27a introduces a contrastive topic rather than coordinating a homogenous set. We represent this therefore with a dashed line.
- v. 28-30: Each verse begins with a כִּי clause. The question is whether each grounds the one before it or if they all ground the same thing.
- v. 28 clearly grounds the series vv. 26 and 27. The fact that the referring phrases in all three verses are references to types rather than individuals strongly invites this interpretation.
- The “light” in v. 29 most likely refers to David's life. When he is close to death, the Lord revives him. This principle echoes 1 Sam 2:6. The כי here therefore exemplifies what comes before with what the speaker knows to be true (cf. BHRG, 435).
- If v. 29 is understood as a reference to David's life, then v. 30 again grounds this statement by an example within the logic of the Psalm. God saves David's life by strengthening him. David knows God lights his lame (=saves his life) because David can route an army.
- v. 32: The כִּי here is clearly not a logical/event-oriented כִּי. Rather the כִּי is a speech-act/subjective כִּי. In v. 32 the Psalmist is grounding the illocution of v. 31. There the Psalmist expresses his confidence that God's ways are indeed perfect. He can make this illocutionary move because he knows that there is none like God (v. 32).
- v. 33: On the relative clause reading, see the notes in grammar.
- v. 40: “The wayyiqtol is also used for a conclusion or a summary: Gn 23.20 “Thus it is that the field passed into Abraham’s possession (וַיָּ֫קָם)”; 2.1; Josh 10.40; 1Sm 17.50; 30.3; 31.6; 2Sm 24.8; Ru 1.22. In these examples one can hardly speak of succession” (JM §118i) Note the repetition of lexemes from v. 33, the beginning of the previous section.
- v. 43: As Briggs (1907, 149) states, “The str[ophe] concludes with a couplet bringing to climax the final victory”. A few translations render this waw with “then” (NASB95, NKJV, KJV), whereas others simply leave it untranslated. That is, they translate it sequentially. While the sequential reading is also available, it is weakened by (1) the fact that a similar statement was made in v. 41, and (2) a departure from (vv. 40b–42) and subsequent return to (in this verse) the larger “discourse topic” of the various ways in which God equips the Psalmist for battle. The return to this larger concern results in the “climax” mentioned above and invites a conclusive/resultative . We have therefore rendered with “so”.
Paragraph Divisions
- Between vv. 6 and 7: Frame setter בַּצַּר־לִ֤י indicates a new “scene”.
- Between vv. 7 and 8: Discourse-level waw and a new discourse topic (from the Psalmist/his cry to the earth and mountains).
- Between vv. 9 and 10: Discourse-level waw.
- Between 12 and 13: Topic shift.
- Between 16 and 17: Discontinuation of wayyiqtol chain.
- Between 20 and 21: Explicit restatement of topic (יהוה) in v. 21.
- Between 23 and 24: Discourse-level waw.
- Between 25 and 26: Major topic shift in v. 26ff.
- Between 30 and 31: Topic shift through extraposition.
- Between 39 and 40: Discourse-level waw.
- Between 43 and 44: V. 43 begins with a discourse-level waw closing out the section.
- Between 46 and 47: Thetic sentences.
- Between 49 and 50: Scope of על כן. See discourse marker notes.
Discourse Markers
- v. 49: “אף signals in a number of instances that the information referred to in a sentence (or sentences) y, affirms the information referred to in an immediately preceding sentence (or sentences)” (BHRG p. 396).
- v. 50: The poetic frame that v. 50 creates with v. 2 (see poetic structure) suggests that עַל כֵּן here express the result of just vv. 47–49 (so Hupfeld 1885, 402). Note however, that vv. 47–48 mirror vv. 2b–3, which summarize the characteristics of YHWH expressed throughout the Psalm. Thus there is a strong implication that the עַל כֵּּן expresses the result of the entire Psalm.
Vocatives
- Vocatives occur in vv. 2, 16 and 50. All of these are poetically significant places. Vv. 2 and 50 frame the psalm, and v. 16 marks the end of YHWH defeating the waters of chaos. See poetic layer.
- In v. 2 the vocative is post verbal and most likely draws attention to the following constituent חִזְקִי “my strength”, since equipping David with strength is how YHWH saves David from his enemies.
- In v. 16 the vocative is in between two adverbial modifiers. Its function is most likely to assist in line delimitation (see poetic layer).
- In v. 29 the clause-final position co-occurs with a grammatical person shift here.
- In v. 50, the vocative is clause-final. Its function is probably to assist in processing the syntax, since the following line is not verb-initial.
Speech Act Analysis
Summary Visual
Speech Act Chart
Emotional Analysis
Summary visual
Think-Feel-Do Chart
Participant analysis
There are 5 participants/characters in Psalm 18
- A faithful person: This and the related generic referring expressions appear in vv. 26–31. They function to illustrate the principle on the basis of which God acts on behalf of the Psalmist: “acts beget consequences” (see Hubbard 1982), that is, God shows himself to an individual in a way commensurate with their actions. That the Psalmist counts himself among these “faithful persons” is suggested by both participants “taking refuge” (חסה) in YHWH (see vv. 3, 31) and the suffix in v. 32.
- YHWH's anger and its related participants (vv. 9–13, 16) all serve as manifestations of God's anger (see Hupfeld 1885, 288). They function together with the earth and Death's waters and other terrestrial participants to mark the turning points in the plot. The earth reacting to God's anger is an instance of “theophany”, that is, the manifestation of God. In essence, in this section of the psalm God “shows up” and thus effects a change in the Psalmist's situation. Similarly, God uses his “rebuke” to defeat death's waters in v. 16. We are told that the rebuke is the wind of God's “anger” in v. 16, and so we have grouped it with the other theophany elements.
Participant Relations Diagram
The relationships among the participants may be abstracted and summarized as follows:
Participant Analysis Table
Notes
- Speaker and Addressee: Fortunately, the Superscription for the Psalm provides the speaker and addressee, for the Psalm: לְדָ֫וִ֥ד אֲשֶׁ֤ר דִּבֶּ֨ר ׀ לַיהוָ֗ה אֶת־דִּ֭בְרֵי הַשִּׁירָ֣ה הַזֹּ֑את “David, who recited the words of this song to YHWH”. There is no good evidence within the song to suggest otherwise.
- v. 3: For the addition of וּמְנוּסִי מֹשִׁעִי מֵחָמָס תֹּשִׁעֵנִי׃ see grammar note (MT ø).
- v. 5: For the emendation to מִשְׁבְּרֵי see grammar note (MT חֶבְלֵי).
- v. 8: אֶרֶץ “land, earth” and הַר “mountain” are paired throughout scripture (e.g., Isa 42:5; 44:23; Ezek 32:6; 37:22, etc), most likely because the latter was constituent of the former (cf. GW “Then the earth shook and quaked. Even the foundations of the mountains trembled.“). They are therefore analyzed here as related participants here.
- v. 9: The smoke, fire and coals here all serve a similar function: to express anger (cf. Baethgen 1904, 50). These elements, of course, naturally accompany each other, and so we see them together elsewhere (e.g., Job 41:12–15). We analyze them as synonymous participants.
- v. 12: For the emendation to חֶשׁרַת see grammar note (MT חֶשְׁכַת).
- v. 13: For the removal of MT עָבָ֥יו see grammar note.
- v. 14: For the removal of MT בָּרָ֗ד וְגַֽחֲלֵי־אֵֽשׁ׃ see grammar note.
- v. 15: For the removal of MT רָ֝ב see grammar note.
- v. 15: Note that many translations (NIV, NLT, CEV, GNT) take the enemies as the referent of the suffixes on the verb וַיְפִיצֵ֑ם and וַיְהֻמֵּֽם. This is unlikely, however. No enemies have been mentioned in the previous discourse. From the context, it is reasonable to assume that what is fleeing is the mythological waters (cf. next verse). We therefore take the referents of the antecedents to be the waves, torrents, cords and traps mentioned in vv. 5–6, since all of these symbolize watery chaos.
- v. 13: Both hail and fire function together as instruments of God's judgement in Exod 9:23, 24; Isa 30:30; Pss 105:32; 148:8. Due to the similar function in those places as well as here, we analyze them as synonymous participants.
- v. 16: The ocean floor and foundations of the world are both terrestrial elements that react to God's wrath, just like the “earth” and “mountains' foundations” in v. 8 (so Hupfeld 1885, 294–295). We therefore group them as synonymous participants.
- v. 17: Back in vv. 5–6, the Psalmist symbolizes his distress by describing being underwater; cf. Jonah's prayer in Jonah 3:3–5. We have therefore analyzed the “waters” here as co-referential with with the implements belonging to Death in vv. 5–6. On the symbolic association between death and water, cf. Jonah 2:7.
- v. 19: On the emendation to מִשְׁעָן see grammar note (MT לְמִשְׁעָ֣ן).
- v. 30: On the revocalization to אָרִץ see grammar note (MT אָרֻ֣ץ).
- v. 32: The words אֱ֭לוֹהַּ and צ֝֗וּר appear in a question and are thus non-real entities. They are therefore not analysed as participants.
- v. 35: On the emendation to נִחַת see grammar note (MT נִחֲתָ֥ה).
- v. 36: On the emendation to עֶזְרָתְךָ see grammar note (MT עַנְוַתְךָ֥).
- v. 43: On the emendation to אֹרַח see grammar note (MT ר֑וּחַ).
- v. 43: On the emendation to אֶרְקָעֵם see grammar note (MT אֲרִיקֵֽם).
- v. 44: On the emendation to עַמִּים see grammar note (MT עָ֥ם).
Participant Distribution Table
The table below demonstrates the participant distribution throughout Psalm 18.
Notes
- Note that the distribution of the enemies also seems uneven, with heavy emphasis at the beginning and end of the psalm.
- In vv. 8-16, David takes a step back and all the focus is on the appearing YHWH. YHWH, by contrast, is ubiquitous throughout the Psalm. In vv. 8-16, there is also clustering of other participants like YHWH’s anger and the earth.
Note also the chiasm in this section:
- v. 8 Earth
- v. 9 YHWH's Anger
- v. 13 YHWH's Anger
- v. 16 Earth
- vv. 17–25: Describes the Psalmist's first-hand experience of deliverance. This is reflected in the enemies and death's waters falling out within the first three verses.
- Faithful people are introduced in vv. 26–27, marking a clear break in the participant structure. This also corresponds to the main break within the poetic structure (see visual).
- Enemies reintroduced in the final section, reflecting David's defeat of the enemies. This section is sub-divided at v 43, reflecting the result of his defeat of the enemies, viz., that nations surrender at mere rumors of David.
Bibliography
- Baethgen, Friedrich. 1904. Die Psalmen. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. https://archive.org/details/diepsalmen00baet.
- Briggs, Charles A. and Emilie Grace Briggs. 1906–1907. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Psalms. New York: C. Scribner's Sons.
- Craigie, Peter C. 2004. Psalm 1–50. 2nd edition. Word Biblical Commentary vol. 19. Nashville, TN: Nelson Reference & Electronic.
- Croft, William. 2022. Morphosyntax: Constructions of the World’s Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Hubbard, Robert L. 1982. “Dynamistic and Legal Processes in Psalm 7,” Zeitschrift Für Die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 94, no. 2: 267–79.</ref>
- Hupfeld, Hermann. 1855. Die Psalmen. Vol. 1. Gotha: Friedrich Andreas Perthes.
- Keil, Carl Friedrich and Franz Delitzsch. 1996. Commentary on the Old Testament. Volume 5. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.