Psalm 18 Participant Analysis
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Psalm 18/Participant Analysis
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YHWH fights my battles
Psalm 18
Please note: Resources for Psalm 18 are in the process of being reformatted for visual consistency and improved functionality.
Participant Analysis
Participant Analysis focuses on the characters in the psalm and asks, “Who are the main participants (or characters) in this psalm, and what are they saying or doing? It is often helpful for understanding literary structure, speaker identification, etc.
For a detailed explanation of our method, see the Participant Analysis Creator Guidelines.
There are 5 participants/characters in Psalm 18
| YHWH |
| YHWH's right hand |
| YHWH's help |
| YHWH's name |
| "My strength" (v. 2) |
| “My cleft” (v. 3) |
| “My fortress” (v. 3) |
| “My rescuer” (v. 3) |
| “My God” (v. 3) |
| “My rock” (v. 3) |
| “My shield” (v. 3) |
| “Horn of my deliverance” (v. 3) |
| “My fortified tower” (v. 3) |
| “My refuge” (v. 3) |
| “My deliverer” (v. 3) |
| “The most high” (v. 14) |
| "The one who arms me with strength” (v. 33) |
| "Rescuer" (v. 42) |
| "The one who makes the deliverance of his king spectacular" (v. 51) |
| "The one who performs acts of loyalty for his anointed one" (v. 51) |
| God's way |
| God's rules (v. 23) |
| God's decrees (v. 23) |
| The sayings of YHWH (v. 31) |
| YHWH's anger |
| Smoke (v. 9) |
| Fire (v. 9) |
| Coals (v. 9) |
| Hail (v. 13) |
| God's rebuke (v. 16) |
| The blast of the wind of his anger (v. 16) |
| David |
| "YHWH's servant" (v. 1) |
| "[God's] King" (v. 51) |
| "[God's] Anointed" (v. 51) |
| Cry (for help) |
| "My sword" (v. 7) |
| David's seed |
| A faithful person |
| A blameless person (v. 26) |
| One who purifies himself (v. 27) |
| A humble people (v. 28) |
| Those who take refuge in him (v. 31) |
| Enemies |
| “those who hate me” (v. 18) |
| "those who rise up against me" (v. 40) |
| The violent man |
| Saul |
| Forces of Death |
| Death's breaker waves (v. 5) |
| Torrents of No Return (v. 6) |
| Cords of the World of the Dead (v. 6) |
| Death's traps (v. 6) |
| Waters (v. 17) |
| Sinful people |
| A twisted person (v. 27) |
| Eyes that look down on others (v. 27) |
| A people I do not know |
| "Nations" (vv. 44, 50) |
| “Foreigners” (vv. 45, 46) |
| The Earth |
| The mountains' foundations |
| The ocean floor |
- A faithful person: This and the related generic referring expressions appear in vv. 26–31. They function to illustrate the principle on the basis of which God acts on behalf of the Psalmist: “acts beget consequences” (see Hubbard 1982), that is, God shows himself to an individual in a way commensurate with their actions. That the Psalmist counts himself among these “faithful persons” is suggested by both participants “taking refuge” (חסה) in YHWH (see vv. 3, 31) and the suffix in v. 32.
- YHWH's anger and its related participants (vv. 9–13, 16) all serve as manifestations of God's anger (see Hupfeld 1885, 288). They function together with the earth and Death's waters and other terrestrial participants to mark the turning points in the plot. The earth reacting to God's anger is an instance of “theophany”, that is, the manifestation of God. In essence, in this section of the psalm God “shows up” and thus effects a change in the Psalmist's situation. Similarly, God uses his “rebuke” to defeat death's waters in v. 16. We are told that the rebuke is the wind of God's “anger” in v. 16, and so we have grouped it with the other theophany elements.
| Hebrew | Line | English |
|---|---|---|
| לַמְנַצֵּ֤חַ ׀ לְעֶ֥בֶד יְהוָ֗ה לְדָ֫וִ֥ד | 1a | For the director By YHWH's servant, David, |
| אֲשֶׁ֤ר דִּבֶּ֨ר ׀ לַיהוָ֗ה | 1b | who recited the words of this song to YHWH |
| אֶת־דִּ֭בְרֵי הַשִּׁירָ֣ה הַזֹּ֑את | 1c | the director By YHWH's servant, David, who recited the words of this song |
| בְּי֤וֹם הִֽצִּיל־יְהוָ֘ה אוֹת֥וֹ מִכַּ֥ף כָּל־אֹ֝יְבָ֗יו וּמִיַּ֥ד שָׁאֽוּל׃ | 1d | when YHWH had rescued him from the palm of all his enemies and from the hand of Saul. |
| וַיֹּאמַ֡ר | 2a | And he said, |
| אֶרְחָמְךָ֖ יְהוָ֣ה חִזְקִֽי׃ | 2b | I shall keep loving you, YHWH, my strength. |
| יְהוָ֤ה ׀ סַֽלְעִ֥י וּמְצוּדָתִ֗י וּמְפַ֫לְטִ֥י | 3a | YHWH is my cleft and my fortress and my rescuer. |
| אֵלִ֣י צ֭וּרִי אֶֽחֱסֶה־בּ֑וֹ | 3b | My God is my rock, in him do I seek protection, |
| מָֽגִנִּ֥י וְקֶֽרֶן־יִ֝שְׁעִ֗י | 3c | my shield and horn of my deliverance, |
| מִשְׂגַּבִּֽי וּמְנוּסִי׃ מֹשִׁעִי׃ מֵחָמָס תֹּשִׁעֵנִי׃ | 3d | my fortified tower and my refuge, my deliverer, who delivers me from violence. |
| מְ֭הֻלָּל אֶקְרָ֣א יְהוָ֑ה | 4a | I cry out to YHWH, since he is praiseworthy, |
| וּמִן־אֹ֝יְבַ֗י אִוָּשֵֽׁעַ׃ | 4b | and I am delivered from my enemies. |
| אֲפָפ֥וּנִי מִשְׁבְּרֵי־מָ֑וֶת | 5a | The breaker waves of Death surrounded me. |
| וְֽנַחֲלֵ֖י בְלִיַּ֣עַל יְבַֽעֲתֽוּנִי׃ | 5b | And the torrents of No Return began to overwhelm me. |
| חֶבְלֵ֣י שְׁא֣וֹל סְבָב֑וּנִי | 6a | The cords of the World of the Dead entangled me. |
| קִ֝דְּמ֗וּנִי מ֣וֹקְשֵׁי מָֽוֶת׃ | 6b | Death's traps rushed upon me. |
| בַּצַּר־לִ֤י ׀ אֶֽקְרָ֣א יְהוָה֮ | 7a | In my distress I cry out to YHWH. |
| וְאֶל־אֱלֹהַ֪י אֲשַׁ֫וֵּ֥עַ | 7b | And to my God do I cry for help. |
| יִשְׁמַ֣ע מֵהֵיכָל֣וֹ קוֹלִ֑י | 7c | He hears my cry from his temple. |
| וְ֝שַׁוְעָתִ֗י לְפָנָ֤יו ׀ תָּב֬וֹא בְאָזְנָֽיו׃ | 7d | And my cry for help before him comes into his ears. |
| וַתִּגְעַ֬שׁ וַתִּרְעַ֨שׁ ׀ הָאָ֗רֶץ | 8a | And the earth quivered and quaked. |
| וּמוֹסְדֵ֣י הָרִ֣ים יִרְגָּ֑זוּ | 8b | And the mountains' foundations began to shake. |
| וַ֝יִּתְגָּֽעֲשׁ֗וּ כִּי־חָ֥רָה לֽוֹ׃ | 8c | And they trembled. For he had become angry. |
| עָ֘לָ֤ה עָשָׁ֨ן ׀ בְּאַפּ֗וֹ | 9a | Smoke went up because of his snarl. |
| וְאֵשׁ־מִפִּ֥יו תֹּאכֵ֑ל | 9b | And a fire from his mouth began to consume. |
| גֶּ֝חָלִ֗ים בָּעֲר֥וּ מִמֶּֽנּוּ׃ | 9c | Coals burned from him. |
| וַיֵּ֣ט שָׁ֭מַיִם וַיֵּרַ֑ד | 10a | And he bent down the heavens and descended. |
| וַ֝עֲרָפֶ֗ל תַּ֣חַת רַגְלָֽיו׃ | 10b | And a dark smog was beneath his feet. |
| וַיִּרְכַּ֣ב עַל־כְּ֭רוּב וַיָּעֹ֑ף | 11a | And he mounted a Cherub and began to fly. |
| וַ֝יֵּ֗דֶא עַל־כַּנְפֵי־רֽוּחַ׃ | 11b | And he flew swiftly upon the wings of the wind. |
| יָ֤שֶׁת חֹ֨שֶׁךְ ׀ סִתְר֗וֹ | 12a | He made darkness his cover. |
| סְבִֽיבוֹתָ֥יו סֻכָּת֑וֹ | 12b | his canopy around him, |
| חֶשְׁרַת־מַ֝֗יִם עָבֵ֥י שְׁחָקִֽים׃ | 12c | the sieve of water, thick clouds of the skies. |
| מִנֹּ֗גַהּ נֶ֫גְדּ֥וֹ עָבְר֑וּ | 13a | Because of the brightness before him, hail and coals of fire passed. |
| בָּ֝רָ֗ד וְגַֽחֲלֵי־אֵֽשׁ׃ | 13b | hail and coals of fire |
| וַיַּרְעֵ֬ם בַּשָּׁמַ֨יִם ׀ יְֽהוָ֗ה | 14a | And YHWH thundered in the heavens. |
| וְ֭עֶלְיוֹן יִתֵּ֣ן קֹל֑וֹ ־׃ | 14b | And the Most High began to raise his voice. |
| וַיִּשְׁלַ֣ח חִ֭צָּיו וַיְפִיצֵ֑ם | 15a | And he shot his arrows, and dispersed them. |
| וּבְרָקִ֥ים וַיְהֻמֵּֽם׃ | 15b | And [he shot his] glittering arrows, and routed them. |
| וַיֵּ֤רָא֨וּ ׀ אֲפִ֥יקֵי מַ֗יִם | 16a | And the ocean floor appeared. |
| וַֽיִּגָּלוּ֮ מוֹסְד֪וֹת תֵּ֫בֵ֥ל | 16b | And the foundations of the world were revealed |
| מִגַּעֲרָ֣תְךָ֣ יְהוָ֑ה | 16c | because of your rebuke, YHWH, |
| מִ֝נִּשְׁמַ֗ת ר֣וּחַ אַפֶּֽךָ׃ | 16d | because of the blast of the wind of your anger. |
| יִשְׁלַ֣ח מִ֭מָּרוֹם יִקָּחֵ֑נִי | 17a | He stretched forth his hand from on high and took me. |
| יַֽ֝מְשֵׁ֗נִי מִמַּ֥יִם רַבִּֽים׃ | 17b | He pulled me out from many waters. |
| יַצִּילֵ֗נִי מֵאֹיְבִ֥י עָ֑ז | 18a | He rescued me from my strong enemy. |
| וּ֝מִשֹּׂנְאַ֗י כִּֽי־אָמְצ֥וּ מִמֶּֽנִּי׃ | 18b | And [he rescued me] from those who hate me. For they were too powerful for me. |
| יְקַדְּמ֥וּנִי בְיוֹם־אֵידִ֑י וַֽיְהִי־יְהוָ֖ה מִשְׁעָ֣ן לִֽי׃ | 19 | They rushed upon me at the time of my calamity. And YHWH was the one in whom I trusted. |
| וַיּוֹצִיאֵ֥נִי לַמֶּרְחָ֑ב יְ֝חַלְּצֵ֗נִי כִּ֘י חָ֥פֵֽץ בִּֽי׃ | 20 | And he brought me out into relief. He delivered me. For he is pleased with me. |
| יִגְמְלֵ֣נִי יְהוָ֣ה כְּצִדְקִ֑י כְּבֹ֥ר יָ֝דַ֗י יָשִׁ֥יב לִֽי׃ | 21 | YHWH deals well with me according to my righteousness. He repays me according to the cleanliness of my hands. |
| כִּֽי־שָׁ֭מַרְתִּי דַּרְכֵ֣י יְהוָ֑ה וְלֹֽא־רָ֝שַׁ֗עְתִּי מֵאֱלֹהָֽי׃ | 22 | For I have kept the ways of YHWH. And I have not turned from my God towards wicked ways. |
| כִּ֣י כָל־מִשְׁפָּטָ֣יו לְנֶגְדִּ֑י וְ֝חֻקֹּתָ֗יו לֹא־אָסִ֥יר מֶֽנִּי׃ | 23 | For all of his rules are before me. And I will not turn his decrees away from me. |
| וָאֱהִ֣י תָמִ֣ים עִמּ֑וֹ וָ֝אֶשְׁתַּמֵּ֗ר מֵעֲוֺנִֽי׃ | 24 | And I have become blameless before him. And I have kept myself from committing iniquity. |
| וַיָּֽשֶׁב־יְהוָ֣ה לִ֣י כְצִדְקִ֑י כְּבֹ֥ר יָ֝דַ֗י לְנֶ֣גֶד עֵינָֽיו׃ | 25 | And YHWH has repaid me according to my righteousness, according to the cleanliness of my hands before his eyes. |
| עִם־חָסִ֥יד תִּתְחַסָּ֑ד עִם־גְּבַ֥ר תָּ֝מִ֗ים תִּתַּמָּֽם׃ | 26 | You act faithfully with a faithful person. You act blamelessly with a blameless person. |
| עִם־נָבָ֥ר תִּתְבָּרָ֑ר וְעִם־עִ֝קֵּ֗שׁ תִּתְפַּתָּֽל׃ | 27 | You act with purity with one who purifies himself. And with a twisted person you act wittily. |
| כִּֽי־אַ֭תָּה עַם־עָנִ֣י תוֹשִׁ֑יעַ וְעֵינַ֖יִם רָמ֣וֹת תַּשְׁפִּֽיל׃ | 28 | For you save a humble people. And you bring down eyes |
| כִּֽי־אַ֭תָּה תָּאִ֣יר נֵרִ֑י יְהוָ֥ה אֱ֝לֹהַ֗י יַגִּ֥יהַּ חָשְׁכִּֽי׃ | 29 | For you light my lamp, YHWH. My God gives light to my darkness. |
| כִּֽי־בְ֭ךָ אָרִ֣ץ גְּד֑וּד וּ֝בֵֽאלֹהַ֗י אֲדַלֶּג־שֽׁוּר׃ | 30 | For by you I can rout an army. And by my God I can scale a wall. |
| הָאֵל֮ תָּמִ֪ים דַּ֫רְכּ֥וֹ אִמְרַֽת־יְהוָ֥ה צְרוּפָ֑ה מָגֵ֥ן ה֝֗וּא לְכֹ֤ל ׀ הַחֹסִ֬ים בּֽוֹ׃ | 31 | God—His way is perfect. The sayings of YHWH are true. He is a shield to all those who take refuge in him. |
| כִּ֤י מִ֣י אֱ֭לוֹהַּ מִבַּלְעֲדֵ֣י יְהוָ֑ה וּמִ֥י צ֝֗וּר זוּלָתִ֥י אֱלֹהֵֽינוּ׃ | 32 | For who is God besides YHWH? And who is a rock besides our God, |
| הָ֭אֵל הַמְאַזְּרֵ֣נִי חָ֑יִל וַיִּתֵּ֖ן תָּמִ֣ים דַּרְכִּֽי׃ | 33 | the God who arms me with strength and makes my endeavor secure? |
| מְשַׁוֶּ֣ה רַ֭גְלַי כָּאַיָּל֑וֹת וְעַ֥ל בָּ֝מֹתַ֗י יַעֲמִידֵֽנִי׃ | 34 | He makes my feet like those of deer. And he causes me to stand upon my heights. |
| מְלַמֵּ֣ד יָ֭דַי לַמִּלְחָמָ֑ה וְֽנִחַ֥ת קֶֽשֶׁת־נְ֝חוּשָׁ֗ה זְרוֹעֹתָֽי׃ | 35 | He trains my hands for war. And he strengthens my arms with a bow of bronze. |
| וַתִּתֶּן־לִי֮ מָגֵ֪ן יִ֫שְׁעֶ֥ךָ וִֽימִינְךָ֥ תִסְעָדֵ֑נִי וְֽעֶזְרָתְךָ֥ תַרְבֵּֽנִי׃ | 36 | And you give me the shield of your victory. And your right hand supports me. And your help makes me great. |
| תַּרְחִ֣יב צַעֲדִ֣י תַחְתָּ֑י וְלֹ֥א מָ֝עֲד֗וּ קַרְסֻלָּֽי׃ | 37 | You enlarged my steps underneath me. And my ankles did not falter. |
| אֶרְדּ֣וֹף א֭וֹיְבַי וְאַשִּׂיגֵ֑ם וְלֹֽא־אָ֝שׁוּב עַד־כַּלּוֹתָֽם׃ | 38 | I chased my enemies and I overtook them. And I would not relent until their destruction. |
| אֶ֭מְחָצֵם וְלֹא־יֻ֣כְלוּ ק֑וּם יִ֝פְּל֗וּ תַּ֣חַת רַגְלָֽי׃ | 39 | I violently beat them, and they could not stand. They fell beneath my feet. |
| וַתְּאַזְּרֵ֣נִי חַ֭יִל לַמִּלְחָמָ֑ה תַּכְרִ֖יעַ קָמַ֣י תַּחְתָּֽי׃ | 40 | And so you armed me with strength for war. You make those who rise up against me kneel underneath me. |
| וְֽאֹיְבַ֗י נָתַ֣תָּה לִּ֣י עֹ֑רֶף וּ֝מְשַׂנְאַ֗י אַצְמִיתֵֽם׃ | 41 | And you have made my enemies retreat from me. And as for those who hate me, I wipe them out. |
| יְשַׁוְּע֥וּ וְאֵין־מוֹשִׁ֑יעַ אֶל־יְ֝הוָ֗ה וְלֹ֣א עָנָֽם׃ | 42 | They cry out for help, and there is no rescuer. [They cry out for help] to YHWH, and he has not answered them. |
| וְֽאֶשְׁחָקֵ֗ם כְּעָפָ֥ר עַל־פְּנֵי־אֹ֑֑רַח כְּטִ֖יט חוּצ֣וֹת אֶרְקָעֵֽם׃ | 43 | And I crush them like the dust on the road. I beat them like the mud of the streets. |
| תְּפַלְּטֵנִי֮ מֵרִ֪יבֵ֫י עַםִ֥ים תְּ֭שִׂימֵנִי לְרֹ֣אשׁ גּוֹיִ֑ם עַ֖ם לֹא־יָדַ֣עְתִּי יַֽעַבְדֽוּנִי׃ | 44 | You will deliver me from people's indictments. You will make me head of nations. A people I do not know will serve me. |
| לְשֵׁ֣מַֽע אֹ֭זֶן יִשָּׁ֣מְעוּ לִ֑י בְּנֵֽי־נֵ֝כָ֗ר יְכַחֲשׁוּ־לִֽי׃ | 45 | As soon as they hear rumors of me they will show obedience to me. Foreigners will submit to me. |
| בְּנֵי־נֵכָ֥ר יִבֹּ֑לוּ וְ֝יַחְרְג֗וּ מִֽמִּסְגְּרֽוֹתֵיהֶֽם׃ | 46 | Foreigners will lose heart and tremble from their fortresses. |
| חַי־יְ֭הוָה וּבָר֣וּךְ צוּרִ֑י וְ֝יָר֗וּם אֱלוֹהֵ֥י יִשְׁעִֽי׃ | 47 | YHWH lives! And my rock is blessed! And the God of my rescue is exalted! |
| הָאֵ֗ל הַנּוֹתֵ֣ן נְקָמ֣וֹת לִ֑י וַיַּדְבֵּ֖ר עַמִּ֣ים תַּחְתָּֽי׃ | 48 | God—who gives me vengeance, and subdues peoples underneath me. |
| מְפַלְּטִ֗י מֵאֹ֫יְבָ֥י אַ֣ף מִן־קָ֭מַי תְּרוֹמְמֵ֑נִי מֵאִ֥ישׁ חָ֝מָ֗ס תַּצִּילֵֽנִי׃ | 49 | You who deliver me from my enemies will indeed exalt me over those who rise up against me. You will rescue me from the violent man. |
| עַל־כֵּ֤ן ׀ אוֹדְךָ֖ בַגּוֹיִ֥ם ׀ יְהוָ֑ה וּלְשִׁמְךָ֥ אֲזַמֵּֽרָה׃ | 50 | Therefore I shall praise you among the nations, YHWH! And I shall sing praise to your name, |
| מַגְדִּיל֮ יְשׁוּע֪וֹת מַ֫לְכּ֥וֹ וְעֹ֤שֶׂה חֶ֨סֶד ׀ לִמְשִׁיח֗וֹ לְדָוִ֥ד וּלְזַרְע֗וֹ עַד־עוֹלָֽם׃ | 51 | who makes the deliverance of his king spectacular, and performs acts of loyalty for his anointed one, for David, and for his seed, forever.” |
- Speaker and Addressee: Fortunately, the Superscription for the Psalm provides the speaker and addressee, for the Psalm: לְדָ֫וִ֥ד אֲשֶׁ֤ר דִּבֶּ֨ר ׀ לַיהוָ֗ה אֶת־דִּ֭בְרֵי הַשִּׁירָ֣ה הַזֹּ֑את “David, who recited the words of this song to YHWH”. There is no good evidence within the song to suggest otherwise.
- v. 3: For the addition of וּמְנוּסִי מֹשִׁעִי מֵחָמָס תֹּשִׁעֵנִי׃ see grammar note (MT ø).
- v. 5: For the emendation to מִשְׁבְּרֵי see grammar note (MT חֶבְלֵי).
- v. 8: אֶרֶץ “land, earth” and הַר “mountain” are paired throughout scripture (e.g., Isa 42:5; 44:23; Ezek 32:6; 37:22, etc), most likely because the latter was constituent of the former (cf. GW “Then the earth shook and quaked. Even the foundations of the mountains trembled.“). They are therefore analyzed here as related participants here.
- v. 9: The smoke, fire and coals here all serve a similar function: to express anger (cf. Baethgen 1904, 50). These elements, of course, naturally accompany each other, and so we see them together elsewhere (e.g., Job 41:12–15). We analyze them as synonymous participants.
- v. 12: For the emendation to חֶשׁרַת see grammar note (MT חֶשְׁכַת).
- v. 13: For the removal of MT עָבָ֥יו see grammar note.
- v. 14: For the removal of MT בָּרָ֗ד וְגַֽחֲלֵי־אֵֽשׁ׃ see grammar note.
- v. 15: For the removal of MT רָ֝ב see grammar note.
- v. 15: Note that many translations (NIV, NLT, CEV, GNT) take the enemies as the referent of the suffixes on the verb וַיְפִיצֵ֑ם and וַיְהֻמֵּֽם. This is unlikely, however. No enemies have been mentioned in the previous discourse. From the context, it is reasonable to assume that what is fleeing is the mythological waters (cf. next verse). We therefore take the referents of the antecedents to be the waves, torrents, cords and traps mentioned in vv. 5–6, since all of these symbolize watery chaos.
- v. 13: Both hail and fire function together as instruments of God's judgement in Exod 9:23, 24; Isa 30:30; Pss 105:32; 148:8. Due to the similar function in those places as well as here, we analyze them as synonymous participants.
- v. 16: The ocean floor and foundations of the world are both terrestrial elements that react to God's wrath, just like the “earth” and “mountains' foundations” in v. 8 (so Hupfeld 1885, 294–295). We therefore group them as synonymous participants.
- v. 17: Back in vv. 5–6, the Psalmist symbolizes his distress by describing being underwater; cf. Jonah's prayer in Jonah 3:3–5. We have therefore analyzed the “waters” here as co-referential with with the implements belonging to Death in vv. 5–6. On the symbolic association between death and water, cf. Jonah 2:7.
- v. 19: On the emendation to מִשְׁעָן see grammar note (MT לְמִשְׁעָ֣ן).
- v. 30: On the revocalization to אָרִץ see grammar note (MT אָרֻ֣ץ).
- v. 32: The words אֱ֭לוֹהַּ and צ֝֗וּר appear in a question and are thus non-real entities. They are therefore not analysed as participants.
- v. 35: On the emendation to נִחַת see grammar note (MT נִחֲתָ֥ה).
- v. 36: On the emendation to עֶזְרָתְךָ see grammar note (MT עַנְוַתְךָ֥).
- v. 43: On the emendation to אֹרַח see grammar note (MT ר֑וּחַ).
- v. 43: On the emendation to אֶרְקָעֵם see grammar note (MT אֲרִיקֵֽם).
- v. 44: On the emendation to עַמִּים see grammar note (MT עָ֥ם).
Participant Relations Diagram
The relationships among the participants may be abstracted and summarized as follows:
Participant Analysis Summary Distribution
