Poetry and Biblical Narrative

Introduction

Linafelt, Tod. 2016. “Poetry and Biblical Narrative.” In The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Narrative, edited by Danna Nolan Fewell, 84–92. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Summary

In this chapter, Tod Linafelt addresses two major topics:

1. Did epic poetry play a role in ancient Israeli culture?
2. How does biblical poetry function when embedded in biblical narrative?

Epic Poetry in Ancient Israel

Scholars have long debated whether Israel had its own version of epics, “long narrative poems with roots in oral performance, often recounting the acts of Gods and of human heroes” (85). Many narratives in the Ancient Near Eastern cultures were presented in such extended poetic forms, such as the Mesopotamian Enuma Elish and the Tale of Atrahasis, Greek Iliad and Odyssey, and Ugaritic Epic of Kirta, Aqhat, and The Baal Cycle. In stark contrast, most narratives in Scripture are related in prose, with fairly short poetic narrative passages in only a few cases, such as Judges 5 and Psalm 114, or "pseudo-narratives" with "narrative-like elements" in Song of Songs 3:1-5 and 5:2-8 (84).

Important stages in this debate include:

• After poetry was found in Ugarit in 1929, Scandinavian scholars such as Bruno and Mowinckel suggested oral origins underlying many of the biblical texts; Cassuto took the same stance.
• In Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic (1973), Cross suggested the J and E sources were actually epics.
• In 1981, Cassuto's student Shemaryahu Talmon published "Did There Exist a National Biblical Epic?", pushing back against the idea of an underlying epic and claiming instead a “conscious, monotheistic repudiation of the polytheistic epic genre” (85)
• In turn, Talmon's student Yair Zakovitch shifted the conversation back to the original position with "Yes, There Was an Israelite Epic in the Biblical Period" (1991).

Functions of Poetry in Biblical Narrative

Biblical poetry as found in narrative contexts functions in several key ways.

1. To mark prominent structural points

• Endings: Note how extended poems appear near the end of both Genesis (Jacob's blessing) and Deuteronomy (Moses' blessing), occurring just before brief, concluding prose. Two poems appear at the end of Deuteronomy, thereby marking the ending of the Torah.
• Transitions/tipping points: The passing through the Red Sea as related in poetic form in Exodus 15 marks the transition for the Hebrews from slavery to freedom. Likewise, David's lament in 2 Samuel 1 marks the transition between Israel's kings--note how he starts in the 3rd person, speaking about the past, and ends in the 1st person, speaking about the present.
• Framing the full structure of a narrative: Three poems outline the books of Samuel, from the Song of Hannah in the second chapter of 1 Samuel, through the transitional lament already mentioned in 2 Samuel 1, to the praise psalm in 2 Samuel 22.
• In each case, these poems, possibly already in existence, may have been embedded in the prose afterwards for purposes of providing structure to the prose accounts.

2. To add "gravitas" or solemnity

While third-person biblical narrators do not speak in poetry, the characters do, whether in just two lines (single lines being extremely rare) or a much longer stretch. In one of the most common functions of poetry within narrative, in many cases the "formal qualities of verse" seem to "add a formality of tone to the speech of the characters" (87).

Some examples:

• Adam's reaction to seeing Eve for the first time (Gen 2:23)
• God’s declarations after the first sin (Gen 3:14-19)
• God’s vow after the flood (Gen 8:22)
• God’s words to Hagar (16:11-12) and to Rebekah (25:23)
• Blessings (Gen 12:3, 27:27-29, 27:39-40) and threats/curses (Lamech's talk of violence in Gen 4:23, God's warning about shedding blood in Gen 9:6, and the curse on Canaan in Gen 9:25-27)
• The announcement of God's Name (Exod 3:15)
• Moses' rebuke of the people (Exod 17:2)
• Joshua's command for the sun and moon to stand still (Josh 10:12)
• Solomon's exclamation to God about building the Temple (1 Kings 8:12-13)

3. To convey figurative language

While Hebrew prose seems to be committed to "realism," with little description or commentary, poetry brings in figures of speech and imagery (88).

Some examples:

• Ishmael was to be a wild donkey of a man (Gen 16:12)
• The Lord told Rebekah she had two nations in her womb (Gen 25:23)
• The many, many metaphors and other figures of speech appearing in Jacob's blessings of Genesis 49. Note the contrast between Joseph as a "fruitful bough with branches running over a wall" (Gen 49:22) with the much more literal statement in the previous chapter of prose that he would return to his ancestral land (Gen 48:21).
• The contrast in prosaic versus poetic content in Exodus 14-15, both describing the same event of crossing the Red Sea. The prose of chapter 14 lacks metaphors, while the poetry of chapter 15 includes more colorful language, such as the Lord as a man of war (15:3), the fire consuming the enemies like stubble (15:7), the blast of God's nostrils (15:8), and heavy objects "anchoring" the three sections of the poem (stone in v. 5, lead in v. 10, and stone again in v. 16) (89).

4. To express "interiority"

Likewise, in contrast with Hebrew prose, Hebrew poetry provides deeper insights into the motivations, thoughts, and other aspects of characters' emotional lives (88).

Some examples:

• Exodus 14 presents the facts of the Red Sea deliverance (in prose), while Exodus 15 highlights the joy (through poetry).
• 1 Samuel 1:19-24 gives the historical account of Hannah's birth and raising of Samuel (in prose), while 1 Samuel 2 relates her exuberant song of praise (through poetry).
• The book of Ruth contains only two brief poetic statements, one by Ruth (1:16-17) and one by Naomi (1:20-21). These emotionally laden speeches introduce the characters as "the bearers of the fundamental tensions of the plot" (90): (1) A personal tension--Ruth has unreservedly devoted herself to Naomi, yet Naomi considers herself "empty" upon returning from Moab; and (2) A theological tension--Naomi speaks of God negatively, though she points to Him as the primary influence on her life, while Ruth seems to be looking more to human relationships. Poetry simply gives us a glimpse into these tensions, while the narrative as a whole remains ambiguous and these potential conflicts remain unresolved to the very end.

Conclusion

The poetry and prose of biblical Hebrew are "very different literary forms, with very different literary tools and resources, and they give rise to different literary genres" (91):

• Narrative generally appears in prose, with little figurative language and few glimpses into the internal life of the characters. In contrast, prose "emphasizes ambiguity, complexity of motive, and the fundamentally unknowable nature of human existence” (91).
• Poetic passages provide a different lens through a more formal tone, the use of metaphors and other figurative language, and insights into the characters' feelings. These poetic passages may appear to provide only "adornment" in some cases, but sometimes they are clearly vital in shaping the story line (91).