View source for Historical Superscriptions

=Introduction=
Some thirteen psalms contain historical notes in their superscriptions.<ref>Scholars do not agree on the identification of every historical superscription. For example, some group Psalm 30 among the historical superscriptions (e.g., Baethgen 1904; Waltke 2010) and others exclude Psalm 7 (e.g., Childs 1971). The thirteen superscriptions listed in the table are generally agreed upon as "historical" superscriptions.</ref> The following table lists all of these historical superscriptions, notes any narrative texts which correspond to the events referred to in the superscriptions, and traces patterns in syntactic construction, collocation with other terms in the superscriptions, and distribution across the Psalter.
==Historical Superscriptions Table==
{| class="wikitable" 
|-
! Psalm
! Superscription<ref>The Hebrew text presented here is taken from [https://hb.openscriptures.org/read/ Open Scriptures Hebrew Bible], which gives the text of the Leningrad Codex.</ref>
! Syntax
! לְדָוִד
! לַמְנַצּחַ
! Genre
! Book
! Corresponding narrative in Samuel
|-
| Ps. 3
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | מִזְמ֥וֹר לְדָוִ֑ד בְּ֝בָרְח֗וֹ מִפְּנֵ֤י ׀ אַבְשָׁל֬וֹם בְּנֽוֹ׃
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | בְּ + inf.
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0; border-color:inherit;" | 
| style="border-color:inherit;" | 
| style="background-color:#68cbd0;" | מִזְמוֹר
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | I
| 2 Sam. 15ff
|-
| Ps. 7<ref>Childs argues that Ps. 7 is not to be included among the psalms with historical superscriptions: "Every other example of the use of 'al in the Psalm titles refers to the manner in which the Psalm is to be rendered and never to a historical referent. The preposition rather indicates that Ps. vii is to be sung "according to the words of Cush" (cf. the parallel in Ps. lxii) and belongs to a liturgical setting" (Childs 1971:138).</ref>
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | שִׁגָּי֗וֹן לְדָ֫וִ֥ד אֲשֶׁר־שָׁ֥ר לַיהוָ֑ה עַל־דִּבְרֵי־כ֝֗וּשׁ בֶּן־יְמִינִֽי׃
| style="background-color:#ffffc7; border-color:inherit;" | rel.
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0; border-color:inherit;" | 
| style="border-color:inherit;" | 
| שִׁגָּיוֹן
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | I
| style="border-color:inherit;" | ?
|-
| Ps. 18
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַמְנַצֵּ֤חַ ׀ לְעֶ֥בֶד יְהוָ֗ה לְדָ֫וִ֥ד אֲשֶׁ֤ר דִּבֶּ֨ר ׀ לַיהוָ֗ה אֶת־דִּ֭בְרֵי הַשִּׁירָ֣ה הַזֹּ֑את בְּי֤וֹם הִֽצִּיל־יְהוָ֘ה אוֹת֥וֹ מִכַּ֥ף כָּל־אֹ֝יְבָ֗יו וּמִיַּ֥ד שָׁאֽוּל׃
| style="background-color:#ffffc7;" | rel.
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| –
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | I
| Cf. 2 Sam. 22
|-
| Ps. 34
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לְדָוִ֗ד בְּשַׁנּוֹת֣וֹ אֶת־טַ֭עְמוֹ לִפְנֵ֣י אֲבִימֶ֑לֶךְ וַֽ֝יְגָרֲשֵׁ֗הוּ וַיֵּלַֽךְ׃
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | בְּ + inf.
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| 
| –
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | I
| 1 Sam. 21
|-
| Ps. 51
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַמְנַצֵּ֗חַ מִזְמ֥וֹר לְדָוִֽד׃ בְּֽבוֹא־אֵ֭לָיו נָתָ֣ן הַנָּבִ֑יא כַּֽאֲשֶׁר־בָּ֝֗א אֶל־בַּת־שָֽׁבַע׃
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | בְּ + inf.
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| style="background-color:#68cbd0;" | מִזְמוֹר
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | II
| 2 Sam. 11-12
|-
| Ps. 52
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַמְנַצֵּ֗חַ מַשְׂכִּ֥יל לְדָוִֽד׃ בְּב֤וֹא ׀ דּוֹאֵ֣ג הָאֲדֹמִי֮ וַיַּגֵּ֪ד לְשָׁ֫א֥וּל וַיֹּ֥אמֶר ל֑וֹ בָּ֥א דָ֝וִ֗ד אֶל־בֵּ֥ית אֲחִימֶֽלֶךְ׃
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | בְּ + inf.
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | מַשְׂכִּיל
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | II
| 1 Sam. 22
|-
| Ps. 54
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַמְנַצֵּ֥חַ בִּנְגִינֹ֗ת מַשְׂכִּ֥יל לְדָוִֽד׃ בְּב֣וֹא הַ֭זִּיפִים וַיֹּאמְר֣וּ לְשָׁא֑וּל הֲלֹ֥א דָ֝וִ֗ד מִסְתַּתֵּ֥ר עִמָּֽנוּ׃
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | בְּ + inf.
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | מַשְׂכִּיל
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | II
| 1 Sam. 23; 26
|-
| Ps. 56
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַמְנַצֵּ֤חַ ׀ עַל־י֬וֹנַת אֵ֣לֶם רְ֭חֹקִים לְדָוִ֣ד מִכְתָּ֑ם בֶּֽאֱחֹ֨ז אֹת֖וֹ פְלִשְׁתִּ֣ים בְּגַֽת׃
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | בְּ + inf.
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| style="background-color:#ffce93;" | מִכְתָּם
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | II
| 1 Sam. 21
|-
| Ps. 57
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַמְנַצֵּ֣חַ אַל־תַּ֭שְׁחֵת לְדָוִ֣ד מִכְתָּ֑ם בְּבָרְח֥וֹ מִפְּנֵי־שָׁ֝א֗וּל בַּמְּעָרָֽה׃
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | בְּ + inf.
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| style="background-color:#ffce93;" | מִכְתָּם
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | II
| 1 Sam. 24 or 1 Sam. 22
|-
| Ps. 59
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַמְנַצֵּ֣חַ אַל־תַּשְׁחֵת֮ לְדָוִ֪ד מִ֫כְתָּ֥ם בִּשְׁלֹ֥חַ שָׁא֑וּל וַֽיִּשְׁמְר֥וּ אֶת־הַ֝בַּ֗יִת לַהֲמִיתֽוֹ׃
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | בְּ + inf.
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| style="background-color:#ffce93;" | מִכְתָּם
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | II
| 1 Sam. 19
|-
| Ps. 60
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַ֭מְנַצֵּחַ עַל־שׁוּשַׁ֣ן עֵד֑וּת מִכְתָּ֖ם לְדָוִ֣ד לְלַמֵּֽד׃ בְּהַצּוֹת֨וֹ ׀ אֶ֥ת אֲרַ֣ם נַהֲרַיִם֮ וְאֶת־אֲרַ֪ם צ֫וֹבָ֥ה וַיָּ֤שָׁב יוֹאָ֗ב וַיַּ֣ךְ אֶת־אֱד֣וֹם בְּגֵיא־מֶ֑לַח שְׁנֵ֖ים עָשָׂ֣ר אָֽלֶף׃
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | בְּ + inf.
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| style="background-color:#ffce93;" | מִכְתָּם
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | II
| ?
|-
| Ps. 63
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | מִזְמ֥וֹר לְדָוִ֑ד בִּ֝הְיוֹת֗וֹ בְּמִדְבַּ֥ר יְהוּדָֽה׃
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | בְּ + inf.
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| 
| style="background-color:#68cbd0;" | מִזְמוֹר
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | II
| 2 Sam. 15ff
|-
| Ps. 142
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | מַשְׂכִּ֥יל לְדָוִ֑ד בִּהְיוֹת֖וֹ בַמְּעָרָ֣ה תְפִלָּֽה׃
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | בְּ + inf.
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | 
| 
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | מַשְׂכִּיל
| style="background-color:#ecf4ff;" | V
| 1 Sam. 24 or 1 Sam. 22
|}
===Observations===
* The historical note almost always appears as the last item in the superscription (with the exception of Ps. 142).
* The historical note is usually introduced with בְּ + infinitive (11/13 times),<ref>The historical superscription in Isaiah 38:9 has the exact same syntactic structure: מִכְתָּ֖ב לְחִזְקִיָּ֣הוּ מֶֽלֶךְ־יְהוּדָ֑ה בַּחֲלֹת֕וֹ וַיְחִ֖י מֵחָלְיֽוֹ׃.</ref> though sometimes it is introduced with a relative clause instead (2/13 times).
* All of the psalms which contain historical notes also have לְדָוִד in their superscriptions, and they refer to events in David's life.
* Most of the psalms (8/13) which contain historical notes also have לַמְנַצֵּחַ in their superscriptions, though a sizable minority (5/13) do not.
* Psalms with historical notes have a variety of genre names in their superscriptions (מִזְמוֹר x3; מַשְׂכִּיל x3; מִכְתָּם x4; שִׁגָּיוֹן x1).
* The majority of psalms with historical notes (8/13) occur in Book II of the Psalter, and, even more narrowly, between Ps. 51 and Ps. 63. Some occur in Book 1 (4/13), and one occurs in Book V. There are no historical superscriptions in Books III-IV (Pss. 73-106).
* Most of the historical notes (at least 11/13) refer to events which are narrated in the Book of Samuel. The events referred to in two of the historical notes (Pss. 7; 60) have no clear corresponding narrative in Samuel.

=FAQ=
==What do the historical superscriptions claim to be or do?==
If לְדָוִד is intended as an attribution of authorship (i.e., "written by David"),<ref>See [[Ledavid]].</ref> then the historical notes most likely intend to give the circumstances in relation to which David wrote each of the relevant psalms.<ref>If, however, לְדָוִד means "about David" or "for David," then the following historical note would have a different meaning. Thus, the interpretation of the historical superscriptions depends largely on the interpretation of לְדָוִד.</ref> This conclusion is supported by the use of historical superscriptions for poems that occur outside of the Psalter. For example, the poem in 2 Sam. 22 (= Ps. 18) begins with the superscription, וַיְדַבֵּ֤ר דָּוִד֙ לַֽיהוָ֔ה אֶת־דִּבְרֵ֖י הַשִּׁירָ֣ה הַזֹּ֑את בְּיוֹם֩ הִצִּ֨יל יְהוָ֥ה אֹת֛וֹ מִכַּ֥ף כָּל־אֹיְבָ֖יו וּמִכַּ֥ף שָׁאֽוּל׃.<ref>Compare the nearly identical superscription in Ps. 18: לַמְנַצֵּ֤חַ׀ לְעֶ֥בֶד יְהוָ֗ה לְדָ֫וִ֥ד אֲשֶׁ֤ר דִּבֶּ֨ר׀ לַיהוָ֗ה אֶת־דִּ֭בְרֵי הַשִּׁירָ֣ה הַזֹּ֑את בְּי֤וֹם הִֽצִּיל־יְהוָ֘ה אוֹת֥וֹ מִכַּ֥ף כָּל־אֹ֝יְבָ֗יו וּמִיַּ֥ד שָׁאֽוּל׃</ref> Within the narrative of Samuel, the poem's superscription (2 Sam. 22:1 = Ps. 18:1) clearly indicates that David is the author and that David composed the psalm in relation to certain events in his life. Other historical superscriptions throughout the narrative portions of the Bible make similar claims and have similar functions (e.g., Ex. 15:1; Deut. 31:30; Deut. 33:1-2; Josh. 10:12; Jdg. 5:1; 1 Sam. 2:1; Isa. 38:9; Jon. 2:2-3). Of these examples, Isaiah 38:9 is especially noteworthy because of its formal similarity with the superscriptions of the Psalter: מִכְתָּ֖ב לְחִזְקִיָּ֣הוּ מֶֽלֶךְ־יְהוּדָ֑ה בַּחֲלֹת֕וֹ וַיְחִ֖י מֵחָלְיֽוֹ׃ (genre + attribution of authorship + historical superscription indicated by בְּ + infinitive). Within the narrative context of Isaiah 38, the claim of the superscription is clear: Hezekiah composed this poem (i.e., Isa. 38:9-20) in relation to the time when he fell ill and recovered (cf. Isa. 38:1-8, 21-22). The thirteen psalms of David which have similar historical superscriptions are probably to be understood in the same way. Thus, '''the historical superscriptions claim to record the historical circumstances in relation to which the relevant psalms were composed.'''<ref>So e.g., Baethgen 1904; Bourget 1981; et al.</ref>

==How did these superscriptions come to be attached to their psalms?==
There are at least two possible answers to this question:
# The first possible answer is that each historical superscription preserves an ancient '''historical tradition''' about the origin of the psalm. 
# The second possible answer is that each historical superscription was added to the psalm as the result of an '''exegetical process''' (i.e., later scribe-editors added each superscription based on perceived connections between the psalm and events in David's life as presented in the narrative books).

===Historical tradition===
It is possible that the historical superscriptions represent ancient historical traditions about the composition of the psalms to which they are attached. The arguments for and against this view are as follows.
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[Historical tradition]: The historical notes in the superscriptions preserve genuine historical memory about the events in relation to which the psalms originated (Hengstenberg :C:; Waltke :C:).
 + <Ancient historical claim>: The historical superscriptions claim to preserve historical information, and the antiquity of these superscriptions supports the reliability of this claim.
  + [Historical claim]: The historical superscriptions claim to record the historical circumstances in relation to which the psalms in question were composed.
  + [Antiquity]: The historical superscriptions are ancient (i.e., nearly as old if not as old as the psalms themselves).
   + <Manuscript and versional evidence>: The historical superscriptions are represented in the oldest manuscripts and versions.
    + [Manuscript evidence]: E.g., 4QPsc preserves a fragment of Ps. 18:1; 4QPsj preserves a fragment of Ps. 51:2.
    + [LXX]: All of the thirteen historical superscriptions are represented without substantial change in the oldest translation of the Psalms, the LXX (c. 2nd cent. BC).
   + <OT hymns>: "No hymn in the Old Testament outside the Psalter lacks a superscript ... suggesting they are original with the composition" (Waltke 2010:90 :C:).
    + [OT hymns]: E.g., Ex. 15:1; Deut. 31:30; Deut. 33:1-2; Josh. 10:12; Jdg. 5:1; 1 Sam. 2:1; Isa. 38:9; Jon. 2:2-3.
   + <Egyptian hymns>: Egyptian hymns from the 18th dynasty contain superscriptions which give information about the genre and the author. Like the superscriptions for many of the biblical poems, these superscriptions end with "he says" or "they say" (cf. Ps. 18:1).
    + [Egyptian hymns]: E.g., "Adoration of Osiris by the overseer of the cattle of (Amun), (Amen)mose, and the lady of Nefertari. He says:" (CS 1.26); "Adoration of Amun when he rises as Harakhti by the overseer of the works of Amun, Suit, (and) the overseer of the works of Amun, Hor. They say:" (CS 1.27)
 - <David unlikely author>: The psalms with historical superscriptions claim to have been written by David, but David could not have written some of them (Baethgen 1904 :C: et al). #dispreferred
 
</argdown>

===Exegetical Process===
Most modern scholars claim that the historical superscriptions have no real historical value. They do not represent any genuine historical memory but are rather the result of an exegetical process. The arguments for this view are as follows.
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[Exegetical process]: "The Psalm titles do not appear to reflect independent historical tradition but are the result of an exegetical activity which derived its material from within the text itself" (Childs 1971:143 :A:; cf. Baethgen 1904). #dispreferred
 + <Ongoing addition of superscriptions>: From the time the LXX was translated (c. 2nd century BC) to the time the Targum was translated (c. 4th-6th century AD?) historical superscriptions were being added to psalms. "It would seem, therefore, highly likely that the same exegetical process was already at work toward the end of the Old Testament period in the formation of the Psalm titles" (Childs 1971:143 :A:). #dispreferred 
  <_ <Remaining Davidic Psalms>: "Why, if they are secondary additions, are the remaining fifty-nine Davidic psalms left without historical notices, especially when many of them could have been easily ascribed to some event in David's life?" (Waltke 2010:92; cf. Archer 1964).
  + <LXX titles>: The LXX has expanded the number of historical superscriptions, and these expansions are unlikely to preserve any long-held historical traditions. They are the result of exegesis. #dispreferred
   - <Secondary to Greek text>: Most, if not all, of these expansions are not original to the LXX translation but are secondary additions to the Greek text (Pietersma 1980 :A:).
 + <Dependence on historical books>: "Nearly all these notices refer to events which are recorded in the history more at length, and many of them are borrowed, almost word for word, from the historical books" (Perowne 1870:100 :C:). #dispreferred
  + [Dependence on historical books]: "The Inscription of Ps. 34 is borrowed, but with some confusion, from 1 Sam. 21:14; that of Ps. 52 from 1 Sam. 22:9; that of Ps. 54 from 1 Sam. 23:19; that of Ps. 56 alludes to 1 Sam. 21:11-15...; that of Ps. 57, which is obscure, possibly refers to 1 Sam. 22, as also Ps. 142" (Perowne 1870:100-111 :C:). #dispreferred
</argdown>

It is also possible that some combination of these two views is correct; ''some'' of the historical superscriptions might represent ancient historical traditions while others might have emerged as the result of an exegetical process.<ref>So e.g., Perowne 1870.</ref> The matter is best dealt with on a case-by-case basis. See e.g., the discussion of [https://psalms.cdbr.org/w/The_Relationship_Between_Ps._34_and_its_Historical_Superscription#The_Nature_of_the_Superscription the superscription of Ps. 34].

==When were the historical superscriptions included in the text?==
The historical superscriptions were included '''at some point between the time of the original composition of each psalm and the time of the translation of Greek Psalms in the second century BC.''' If the historical superscriptions preserve ancient historical traditions about the composition of the psalms in question, then they are likely to be very old, perhaps as old as the psalms themselves. If however, these superscriptions are the result of an exegetical process, then they were probably added at some point long after they were written, though no later than the second century BC.

==Are the historical superscriptions part of the text?==
The historical superscriptions, as with all of the Psalms superscriptions, are represented in translations in a variety of ways.
* Some translations exclude the superscriptions entirely (e.g., NEB).<ref>See also the following footnote on the Peshitta.</ref>
* Some ancient translations add their own superscriptions in place of the Hebrew superscriptions (e.g., Peshitta).<ref>Cf. Abraham Chappell, “Approaching the Psalms: The Psalm Headings in the Early Versions” (Doctor of Philosophy, University of California, 2015). The original Peshitta translation of Psalms probably lacked the superscriptions entirely (Richard Taylor, "The Syriac Peshitta Bible with English Translations," Georgias Press 2020, xxi).</ref>
* Some translations move the superscriptions from the main text to footnotes (e.g., GNT).
* Some translations include the superscriptions in the main text, but they distinguish them from the rest of the text (e.g., different font, all-caps, italics, etc.) and do not include them in the versification (e.g., most English translations). A similar approach can be seen in the oldest Greek manuscripts of psalms (e.g., Codex Sinaiticus), in which the superscription is indented and written in red ink.
[[File: Sinaiticus historical superscription.png|class=img-fluid|500px|Codex Sinaiticus Ps. 51]] 
* Some translations include the superscriptions in the main text and in the versification, but they distinguish them from the rest of the text.
* Some translations include the superscriptions in the main text and in the versification, and they do not distinguish them from the rest of the text (e.g., JPS).

The variety of ways in which the superscriptions appear (or don't appear) in translation raises a question: are the superscriptions part of the text? The answer to this question depends in part on what is meant by "the text." If "the text" refers to the original psalm composition, then the answer is: "Maybe." It is possible that the author of the psalm (i.e., David) added the historical superscription himself. It is also possible that someone familiar with the circumstances surrounding the psalms' composition added the superscriptions to the psalms such that they became part of the text at a very early point. It is also possible, if the superscriptions are the result of an exegetical process, that scribes added the superscriptions long after the psalms were written. In all of these scenarios, the historical superscriptions have become part of "the text" of the Book of Psalms. So, '''if "the text" refers to the final form of the Book of Psalms which was recognized as canonical Scripture, then the answer to the question is, undoubtedly: "yes."''' The superscriptions are included as part of the text in the best Hebrew Psalms manuscripts. In the Aleppo Codex, for example, the superscriptions are accented and included in the text in a manner that is hardly distinguishable from the rest of the text. E.g., Ps. 52:
[[File: Aleppo ps 52.png|class=img-fluid|500px|Aleppo Codex Ps. 52]]

While the ancient psalms scroll MasPs<sup>a</sup> (1st century BC) does not preserve any psalms which contain ''historical'' superscriptions, it does preserve several psalms with superscriptions. In this scroll, the superscriptions of these psalms are represented as part of the text. It is highly likely that the historical superscriptions would have been similarly written in this scroll.<ref>The picture below is a screen shot of a picture in [https://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/explore-the-archive/manuscript/Mas%201e-1 Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library].</ref>

[[File: Masada psalms.png|class=img-fluid|500px|Masada Psalms Scroll Ps. 85]]

==Why do some psalms have historical superscriptions? What difference to they make?==
'''The historical superscriptions deepen the significance of the psalms to which they are attached as well as the narratives to which they refer.'''<ref>"Linking psalms with incidents from David’s life helped people to see more of the significance of both psalm and narrative" (Goldingay 2006).</ref> 

Knowing the concrete situation behind a psalm gives the psalm colour. For example, without its superscription, Ps. 34 might be read as a general psalm of deliverance from danger. With its superscription, however, statements like "this is a poor man who cried out" (v. 7) take on deeper significance: the "poor man" is not just anybody, but David, who, being hunted by Saul, has fled to a foreign land where he has become afraid for his life. This high-resolution understanding of the psalm also makes it easier for anyone who prays the psalm to relate to its content. As Mays writes, "The psalm titles ... are ... hermeneutical ways of relating the psalms to the lives of those who lived in the face of threats from enemies within and without and from their own sin, and who sought to conduct their lives according to the way of David"<ref>Mays 1986.</ref> 

At the same time, the historical superscriptions inform the way we interpret the biblical narratives to which they refer (just as, for example, the poem of Judges 5 helps us to interpret Judges 4 and the poem of Exodus 15 helps us to interpret Exodus 14, etc.). The story of 1 Sam. 21:11ff, for example, (the story to which the superscription of Ps. 34 refers) does not say anything about David crying out in prayer and YHWH rescuing him, and a superficial reading of this story might suggest that David saved himself by his own wits. Ps. 34, however – thanks to its historical superscription – teaches us how to read the story in 1 Samuel as it is meant to be read: as a story of YHWH's deliverance. It also teaches us how to respond when we encounter similar situations.

Finally, the historical superscriptions, with their unique focus on David's life, do more than just help us to understand both the psalms to which they are prefixed and the narratives to which they refer. '''They also give us a portrait of David''',<ref>"By highlighting David during his times of distress, the historical titles tend to recast David as a man who prayed to his God in every moment of difficulty" (Johnson 2005, dissertation abstract).</ref> '''who in turn gives us, by his words and by his life, a prophetic picture of the Messiah.'''<ref>The Psalter, in its final form, is shaped around a Messianic expectation (cf. Pss. 1-2). Cf. [https://psalms.cdbr.org/w/The_Message_of_the_Psalter ''The Message of the Psalter'']</ref> As May's writes, "The Davidic relation brings out the prophetic potential in the Psalms. David is the king whose throne has an everlasting future based on the promise of God. The songs he sponsored and spoke are to be read in the context of that promise. They are "messianic," not because all of them are about the anointed of Israel, but rather in the sense that they are language to be spoken in the knowledge that God has chosen a Messiah and surely keeps his promises."<ref>Mays 1986. Cf. Skinner's 2016 dissertation: "The h/ss have been shown to be intentionally placed, theologically coherent by linking specific chapters in David’s life (his exile by Saul, his kinship during Yahweh’s blessing, and his kingship during Yahweh’s judgment/wrath), and to provide a broader narrative reading strategy for the Psalter as a book. The Davidic covenant has been shown to best reflect the context for reading the final form of the Psalter, as well as strengthening the general consensus that kingship is a central focus of the thematic structuring of the Psalter. The ultimate meaning of the h/ss is aligned with the development of Yahweh’s plan for his covenant people and promises."</ref>

=Appendix A: Historical superscriptions in MT & LXX=
{| class="wikitable" 
|-
! 
! MT (Leningrad Codex)
! LXX (Rahlfs 1931)<ref>Bold text indicates additions which are in the Greek and not in the Hebrew. Text that is struck-through with a line indicates text which Pietersma (1980) has argued is not Old Greek and has not included in his translation of the Psalms (NETS).</ref>
|-
| Ps. 3
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | מִזְמ֥וֹר לְדָוִ֑ד בְּ֝בָרְח֗וֹ מִפְּנֵ֤י ׀ אַבְשָׁל֬וֹם בְּנֽוֹ׃
| Ψαλμὸς τῷ Δαυιδ, ὁπότε ἀπεδίδρασκεν ἀπὸ προσώπου Αβεσσαλωμ τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτοῦ
|-
| Ps. 7
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | שִׁגָּי֗וֹן לְדָ֫וִ֥ד אֲשֶׁר־שָׁ֥ר לַיהוָ֑ה עַל־דִּבְרֵי־כ֝֗וּשׁ בֶּן־יְמִינִֽי׃
| Ψαλμὸς τῷ Δαυιδ, ὃν ᾖσεν τῷ κυρίῳ ὑπὲρ τῶν λόγων Χουσι υἱοῦ Ιεμενι
|-
| Ps. 18
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַמְנַצֵּ֤חַ ׀ לְעֶ֥בֶד יְהוָ֗ה לְדָ֫וִ֥ד אֲשֶׁ֤ר דִּבֶּ֨ר ׀ לַיהוָ֗ה אֶת־דִּ֭בְרֵי הַשִּׁירָ֣ה הַזֹּ֑את בְּי֤וֹם הִֽצִּיל־יְהוָ֘ה אוֹת֥וֹ מִכַּ֥ף כָּל־אֹ֝יְבָ֗יו וּמִיַּ֥ד שָׁאֽוּל׃
| Εἰς τὸ τέλος, τῷ παιδὶ κυρίου τῷ Δαυιδ, ἃ ἐλάλησεν τῷ κυρίῳ τοὺς λόγους τῆς ᾠδῆς ταύτης ἐν ἡμέρᾳ, ἧ ἐρρύσατο αὐτὸν κύριος ἐκ χειρὸς πάντων τῶν ἐχθρῶν αὐτοῦ καὶ ἐκ χειρὸς Σαουλ. '''καὶ εἶπεν'''<ref>Whereas in the MT, וַיֹּאמַ֡ר begins the next verse, in the LXX it concludes the superscription.</ref>
|-
| Ps. 27
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לְדָוִ֨ד׀
| Τοῦ Δαυιδ, '''πρὸ τοῦ χρισθῆναι'''<ref>Pietersma (NETS) places this text in brackets to indicate its textual uncertainty.</ref>
|-
| Ps. 34
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לְדָוִ֗ד בְּשַׁנּוֹת֣וֹ אֶת־טַ֭עְמוֹ לִפְנֵ֣י אֲבִימֶ֑לֶךְ וַֽ֝יְגָרֲשֵׁ֗הוּ וַיֵּלַֽךְ׃
| Τῷ Δαυιδ, ὁπότε ἠλλοίωσεν τὸ πρόσωπον αὐτοῦ ἐναντίον Αβιμελεχ, καὶ ἀπέλυσεν αὐτόν, καὶ ἀπῆλθεν
|-
| Ps. 51
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַמְנַצֵּ֗חַ מִזְמ֥וֹר לְדָוִֽד׃ בְּֽבוֹא־אֵ֭לָיו נָתָ֣ן הַנָּבִ֑יא כַּֽאֲשֶׁר־בָּ֝֗א אֶל־בַּת־שָֽׁבַע׃
| Εἰς τὸ τέλος, ψαλμὸς τῷ Δαυιδ ἐν τῷ ἐλθεῖν πρὸς αὐτὸν Ναθαν τὸν προφήτην, ἡνίκα εἰσῆλθεν πρὸς Βηρσαβεε
|-
| Ps. 52
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַמְנַצֵּ֗חַ מַשְׂכִּ֥יל לְדָוִֽד׃ בְּב֤וֹא ׀ דּוֹאֵ֣ג הָאֲדֹמִי֮ וַיַּגֵּ֪ד לְשָׁ֫א֥וּל וַיֹּ֥אמֶר ל֑וֹ בָּ֥א דָ֝וִ֗ד אֶל־בֵּ֥ית אֲחִימֶֽלֶךְ׃
| Εἰς τὸ τέλος, συνέσεως τῷ Δαυιδ ἐν τῷ ἐλθεῖν Δωηκ τὸν Ιδουμαῖον καὶ ἀναγγεῖλαι τῷ Σαουλ καὶ εἰπεῖν αὐτῷ Ἦλθεν Δαυιδ εἰς τὸν οἶκον '''Αβιμελεχ'''
|-
| Ps. 54
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַמְנַצֵּ֥חַ בִּנְגִינֹ֗ת מַשְׂכִּ֥יל לְדָוִֽד׃ בְּב֣וֹא הַ֭זִּיפִים וַיֹּאמְר֣וּ לְשָׁא֑וּל הֲלֹ֥א דָ֝וִ֗ד מִסְתַּתֵּ֥ר עִמָּֽנוּ׃
| Εἰς τὸ τέλος, ἐν ὕμνοις, συνέσεως τῷ Δαυιδ ἐν τῷ ἐλθεῖν τοὺς Ζιφαίους καὶ εἰπεῖν τῷ Σαουλ Οὐκ ἰδοὺ Δαυιδ κέκρυπται παρʼ ἡμῖν;
|-
| Ps. 56
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַמְנַצֵּ֤חַ ׀ עַל־י֬וֹנַת אֵ֣לֶם רְ֭חֹקִים לְדָוִ֣ד מִכְתָּ֑ם בֶּֽאֱחֹ֨ז אֹת֖וֹ פְלִשְׁתִּ֣ים בְּגַֽת׃
| Εἰς τὸ τέλος, ὑπὲρ τοῦ λαοῦ τοῦ ἀπὸ τῶν ἁγίων μεμακρυμμένου, τῷ Δαυιδ εἰς στηλογραφίαν, ὁπότε ἐκράτησαν αὐτὸν οἱ ἀλλόφυλοι ἐν Γεθ
|-
| Ps. 57
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַמְנַצֵּ֣חַ אַל־תַּ֭שְׁחֵת לְדָוִ֣ד מִכְתָּ֑ם בְּבָרְח֥וֹ מִפְּנֵי־שָׁ֝א֗וּל בַּמְּעָרָֽה׃
| Εἰς τὸ τέλος, μὴ διαφθείρῃς, τῷ Δαυιδ εἰς στηλογραφίαν ἐν τῷ αὐτὸν ἀποδιδράσκειν ἀπὸ προσώπου Σαουλ εἰς τὸ σπήλαιον
|-
| Ps. 59
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַמְנַצֵּ֣חַ אַל־תַּשְׁחֵת֮ לְדָוִ֪ד מִ֫כְתָּ֥ם בִּשְׁלֹ֥חַ שָׁא֑וּל וַֽיִּשְׁמְר֥וּ אֶת־הַ֝בַּ֗יִת לַהֲמִיתֽוֹ׃
| Εἰς τὸ τέλος, μὴ διαφθείρῃς, τῷ Δαυιδ εἰς στηλογραφίαν, ὁπότε ἀπέστειλεν Σαουλ καὶ ἐφύλαξεν τὸν οἶκον αὐτοῦ τοῦ θανατῶσαι αὐτόν
|-
| Ps. 60
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַ֭מְנַצֵּחַ עַל־שׁוּשַׁ֣ן עֵד֑וּת מִכְתָּ֖ם לְדָוִ֣ד לְלַמֵּֽד׃ בְּהַצּוֹת֨וֹ ׀ אֶ֥ת אֲרַ֣ם נַהֲרַיִם֮ וְאֶת־אֲרַ֪ם צ֫וֹבָ֥ה וַיָּ֤שָׁב יוֹאָ֗ב וַיַּ֣ךְ אֶת־אֱד֣וֹם בְּגֵיא־מֶ֑לַח שְׁנֵ֖ים עָשָׂ֣ר אָֽלֶף׃
| Εἰς τὸ τέλος, τοῖς ἀλλοιωθησομένοις ἔτι, εἰς στηλογραφίαν τῷ Δαυιδ, εἰς διδαχήν, ὁπότε ἐνεπύρισεν τὴν Μεσοποταμίαν Συρίας καὶ τὴν Συρίαν Σωβα, καὶ ἐπέστρεψεν Ιωαβ καὶ ἐπάταξεν τὴν φάραγγα τῶν ἁλῶν, δώδεκα χιλιάδας
|-
| Ps. 63
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | מִזְמ֥וֹר לְדָוִ֑ד בִּ֝הְיוֹת֗וֹ בְּמִדְבַּ֥ר יְהוּדָֽה׃
| Ψαλμὸς τῷ Δαυιδ ἐν τῷ εἶναι αὐτὸν ἐν τῇ ἐρήμῳ τῆς Ιουδαίας
|-
| Ps. 65
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לַמְנַצֵּ֥חַ מִזְמ֗וֹר לְדָוִ֥ד שִֽׁיר׃
| Εἰς τὸ τέλος, ψαλμὸς τῷ Δαυιδ, ᾠδή, <s>Ιερεμιου καὶ Ιεζεκιηλ ἐκ τοῦ λόγου τῆς παροικίας, ὅτε ἔμελλον ἐκπορεύεσθαι</s>
|-
| Ps. 93
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | –
| '''Εἰς τὴν ἡμέραν τοῦ προσαββάτου''', <s>ὅτε κατῴκισται ἡ γῆ, αἶνος ᾠδῆς τῷ Δαυιδ</s>
|-
| Ps. 96
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | –
| <s>Ὅτε ὁ οἶκος ᾠκοδομεῖτο μετὰ τὴν αἰχμαλωσίαν,</s><ref>Pietersma (NETS) places this text in brackets to indicate its textual uncertainty.</ref> ᾠδὴ τῷ Δαυιδ
|-
| Ps. 97
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | –
| '''Τῷ Δαυιδ''', <s>ὅτε ἡ γῆ αὐτοῦ καθίσταται</s><ref>Pietersma (NETS) places this text in brackets to indicate its textual uncertainty.</ref>
|-
| Ps. 142
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | מַשְׂכִּ֥יל לְדָוִ֑ד בִּהְיוֹת֖וֹ בַמְּעָרָ֣ה תְפִלָּֽה׃
| Συνέσεως τῷ Δαυιδ ἐν τῷ εἶναι αὐτὸν ἐν τῷ σπηλαίῳ, προσευχή
|-
| Ps. 143
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | מִזְמ֗וֹר לְדָ֫וִ֥ד
| Ψαλμὸς τῷ Δαυιδ, <s>ὅτε αὐτὸν ὁ υἱὸς καταδιώκει</s>
|-
| Ps. 144
| style="text-align:right; font-family:'Times New Roman', Times, serif !important;" | לְדָוִ֨ד׀
| Τῷ Δαυιδ, <s>πρὸς τὸν Γολιαδ</s>
|-
| Ps. 151
| 
| Οὗτος ὁ ψαλμὸς ἰδιόγραφος εἰς Δαυιδ καὶ ἔξωθεν τοῦ ἀριθμοῦ, <s>ὅτε ἐμονομάχησεν τῷ Γολιαδ</s><ref>The superscription to this psalm in 11QPs<sup>a</sup> reads: הללויה לדויד בן לישי</ref>
|}
=Appendix B: Historical Superscriptions in other Jewish Texts=
==The Prayer of Nabonidus (4QPrNab)==
"(Concerning) words of p[ra]yer of Nabonidus, king of [Ba]bylon, [the Great] King, [when he was stricken] with a pernicious inflammation by the decree of G[o]d, in [the municipality of] Teman."<ref>Translation from ''Context of Scripture'' I:286. See discussion on pp. 285-286.</ref>

מלי צ[ל]תא די נבני מלך{} [ב]בל מלכ[א רבא כדי הוא כתיש הוה] בשחנא באישש בפתגם א[לה]א בתימן<ref>Reconstruction by Cross, Frank Moore. “Fragments of the Prayer of Nabonidus.” Israel Exploration Journal 34, no. 4 (1984): 260–64. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27925954.</ref>

=References=
[[Category:Superscriptions]]